FruitSopedia

My Blog, My fresh fruit archive for all...

2009-03-11T12:53:00.000-07:00

"Some people doesn't love fruits,Why?How about you?Do you love them?How so far you know about fruits?Do you want to know much better?" Fruitsopedia tries to give you more knowledge about fruits.Fruit...fruit...fruit...,I hope you enjoy this site.Published by me,Dony Iskandar,fruit lover,i dedicate this site for you...i invite you to become fruitarian.More fun,more health,more fresh and of course...more fruits.

Fruit Recipe

2009-03-11T11:28:00.000-07:00

Did you know? Fruits can also to be cooked...try this...

Fruitherapy

2009-03-11T10:46:00.001-07:00

Health with fruits...it's easy...try this:

Fruit A - Z

2009-02-20T11:01:00.000-08:00

Common fruit in the world:

Strawberry

2009-02-20T10:07:00.000-08:00

Strawberry Strawberries are a common variety of strawberry cultivated worldwide. Like other species of Fragaria (strawberries), it belongs to the family Rosaceae. Technically it is not a fruit but a false fruit, meaning the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's ovaries (achenes) but from the peg at the bottom of the bowl-shaped hypanthium that holds the ovaries. The Garden Strawberry was first bred in Europe in the early 18th century. This represents the accidental cross of Fragaria virginiana from eastern North America, which was noted for its flavor, and Fragaria chiloensis from Chile, which was noted for its large size. Cultivars of Fragaria × ananassa have replaced in commercial production the Woodland Strawberry, which was the first strawberry species cultivated in the early 17th century. Cultivation Strawberry cultivars vary remarkably in size, colour, flavour, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant. Some vary in foliage, and some vary materially in the relative development of their sexual organs. In most cases the flowers appear hermaphroditic in structure, but function as either male or female. For purposes of commercial production, plants are propagated from runners and generally distributed as either bare root plants or plugs. Cultivation follows one of two general models, annual plasticulture or a perennial system of matted rows or mounds. A small amount of strawberries are also produced in greenhouses during the off season. The bulk of modern commercial production uses the plasticulture system. In this method, raised beds are formed each year, fumigated, and covered with plastic, which prevents weed growth and erosion, under which is run irrigation tubing. Plants, usually obtained from northern nurseries, are planted through holes punched in this covering. Runners are removed from the plants as they appear, to encourage the plants to put most of their energy into fruit development. At the end of the harvest season, the plastic is removed and the plants are plowed into the ground. Because strawberry plants more than a year or two old begin to decline in productivity and fruit quality, this system of replacing the plants each year allows for improved yields and denser plantings. However, because it requires a longer growing season to allow for establishment of the plants each year, and because of the increased costs in terms of forming and covering the mounds and purchasing plants each year, it is not always practical in all areas. The other major method is to maintain the same plants from year to year. The runners of established plants should be allowed to root in the soil adjoining the plants, which should, therefore, be kept light and fine, or layered into small pots as for forcing. As soon as a few leaves are produced on each the secondary runners should be stopped. When the plants have become well-rooted they should at once be planted out. They do best in a rather strong loam, and should be kept tolerably moist. The ground should be trenched 50-100 cm deep, and supplied with plenty of manure, a good proportion of which should lie just below the roots, 25-30 cm from the surface. The plants may be put in on an average about 50-60 cm apart. The plantation should be renewed (renovation) every second or third year, or less frequently if kept free of runners, if the old leaves are cut away after the fruit has been gathered, and if a good top-dressing of rotten dung or leaf mold is applied. A top-dressing of loam is beneficial if applied before the plants begin to grow in spring, but after that period they should not be disturbed during the summer either at root or at top. If the plants produce a large number of flower-scapes, each should, if fine large fruit is desired, have them reduced to about four of the strongest. The lowest blossoms on the scape will be found to produce the largest, earliest and best fruits. The fruit should not be gathered until it is quite ripe, and then, if possible, it should be quite dry, but not heated by the sun. Those intended for preserving are best taken without the stalk and the calyx. A mulching of straw manure put between the rows in spring serves to keep the ground moist and the fruit clean, as well as to afford nourishment to the plants. Unless required, the runners are cut off early, in order to promote the swelling of the fruit. The plants are watered during dry weather after the fruit is set, and occasionally until it begins to colour. As soon as the fruit season is over, the runners are again removed, and the ground hoed and raked. Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit. Traditionally, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "Ever-bearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season. More recently, research has shown that strawberries actually occur in three basic flowering habits: short day, long day, and day neutral. These refer to the day length sensitivity of the plant and the type of photoperiod which induces flower formation. Day neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod. Most commercial strawberries are either short day or day neutral. While rarely if ever done commercially, may also be propagated by seed, and a few seed propagated cultivars have been developed for home use. Seeds are acquired commercially or saved from fruit ripened early in the summer. They may at once be sown, either in a sheltered border outdoors or in pots, or better in March under glass, when they will produce fruits in June of the same year. The soil should be rich and light, and the seeds very slightly covered by sifting over them some leaf-mould or old decomposed cow dung. When the plants appear and have made five or six leaves, they are transplanted to where they are to remain for bearing. The seeds sown in pots may be helped on by gentle heat, and when the plants are large enough they are pricked out in fine rich soil, and in June transferred to the open ground for bearing. Forcing The runners propagated for forcing are layered into 75 mm pots, filled with rich soil, and held firm by a piece of raffia, a peg or stone. If kept duly watered they will soon form independent plants. The earlier they are secured the better. When firmly rooted they are removed and transferred into well-drained 150 mm pots, of strong well-enriched loam, the soil being rammed firmly into the pots, which are to be set in an open airy place. In severe frosts they should be covered with dry litter or bracken, but do not necessarily require to be placed under glass. They are moved into the forcing houses as required. The main points to be kept in view in forcing strawberries are: use strong stocky plants, the leaves of which have grown sturdily from being well exposed to light, and grow them slowly until the fruit is set. When they are first introduced into heat, the temperature should not exceed 8°C to 10°C, and air must be freely admitted; should the leaves appear to grow up thin and delicate, less fire heat and more air must be given, but an average temperature of 13°C by day may be allowed and continued while the plants are in flower. When the fruit is set the heat may be gradually increased, till at the ripening period it stands at 18°C to 24°C by sun heat. While the fruit is swelling the plants should never be allowed to get dry, but when it begins to colour no more water should be given than is absolutely requisite to keep the leaves from flagging. The plants should be removed from the house as soon as the crop is gathered. The forced plants properly hardened make first-rate outdoor plantations, and if put out early in summer, in good ground, will often produce a useful autumnal crop. Pests A number of species of Lepidoptera feed on strawberry plants; for details see this list. The grubs of the cockchafer (Meloloniha vulgaris) and the rose chafer (Cetonia aurata) frequently feed upon the roots of the strawberry and do considerable damage, while the larvae of the Ghost Moth (Hepialus humuli) and garden swift moth behave in a similar way. The imago of Cetonia aurala also frequently damages the flowers of the strawberry by devouring their centres, and is often troublesome in this way in forcing-houses particularly. The carnivorous ground beetles, particularly Pterostichus nigra and Harpalus rufimanus, when the fruit is ripe attack it at night, returning to the soil in the daytime. They are to be caught by placing jars containing some attractive matter, such as meat and water, at intervals about the beds with their mouths sunk level with the surface of the soil. Millipedes also are often found in the ripe fruit, but occur mostly where the soil is very rich in organic matter and poor in lime. Slugs and snails also snack on the fruit, as do birds. Slug pellets can be used to reduce their numbers, with child and animal safe versions available. Organic solutions to slug attacks include beer baiting. Uses In addition to being consumed fresh, strawberries can be frozen, made into preserves as well as dried and used in such things as cereal bars. Strawberries are a popular addition to dairy products, as in strawberry flavored ice cream, milkshakes, smoothies and yoghurts. Strawberry pie is also popular. Cosmetically, they are supposedly used for whitening teeth. They can be crushed and made into an exfoliant for skin. Strawberry pigment extract can be used as a natural acid/base indicator due to the different colour of the conjugate acid and conjugate base of the pigment. References 1. FAO stat 2."Whiten Your Teeth the Natural Way". www.health.com. 2006-01-01. http://www.health.com/health/article/0,23414,1136070,00.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-18. 3. http://alameda.peralta.edu/Projects/20295/Chem_1B_Lab_Manual/Experiment_9_-_pH_indicators.doc

Apple Brownies

2009-02-20T09:40:00.000-08:00

Ingredients :

1 Stick margarine
1 c Sugar
1 Egg; beaten
1/2 c Chopped nuts
2 md Apples; peeled, cored & finely chopped
1 c Flour
1/2 ts Baking powder
1/2 ts Baking soda
1/2 ts Salt
1/2 ts Cinnamon

Preparation: Cream margarine & add sugar gradually, beating until smooth. Beat egg separately until light & fluffy, then add to margarine mixture. Stir in nuts & chopped apples. Sift together dry ingredients & fold into batter with a spoon. Turn batter into a greased 7x11-inch baking pan. Bake 40 minutes at 350. Cool & cut into squares. Recipe may be doubled for a 9x13-inch pan.

Health Diets With Apple

2009-02-20T09:39:00.000-08:00

More and more studies are being done to show the health benefits of including apples in your diet. Nuritionists are taking these studies even further and developing specific eating plans centered around apple consumption. MyPyramid The new symbol and interactive food guidance system was revealed in April 2005 by Agriculture Secretary Mike Johanns. MyPryamid can be your guide in choosing how much fruit is recommended daily. For example, the suggested daily amount of fruit consumption for men and woman aged 19-30 getting at least 30 minutes of physical activity a day is 2 cups. One cup of apples would be:

1/2 large apple
1 small apple
1 cup applesauce
8 oz. apple juice
1 cup sliced, chopped or cooked apples

All great tasting ways to meet your daily fruit group needs!

Mango and Cancer

2009-02-20T09:38:00.000-08:00

MANGO (Mangifera indica) is an excellent source of carotene, vitamin A, C, E, B vitamins, and copper. It is also a good source of potassium, magnesium and a very good source of both soluble and insoluble fiber. 1-cup serving of sliced mango provides 12% of the daily value of fiber; more than half is soluble fiber, the type of fiber that latches on to cholesterol and helps to prevent cardiovascular disease. HEALTH BENEFITS Mangoes have a high concentration of carotenoids, antioxidants, and various flavonoids.According to data obtained from 2002 research conducted by Dr. Percival, and associate professor at the University of Florida's Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, mango is able to stop normal cells from turning into cancer cells. A diet analysis of 64 patients with gallbladder cancer and 101 patients with gallstones showed that mango consumption can reduce the risk of gallbladder cancer by 60%—the highest reduction in the risk of this cancer found for any fruit or vegetable. Because of their high iron content, mangoes are beneficial for people with anemia. People who suffer from muscle crumps, stress, and heart problems can benefit from mangoes' high potassium and magnesium content. In addition, mango can be safely enjoyed by people with diabetes. When plasma glucose and insulin response to various tropical fruits were compared, the glucose response curve to mango was the lowest of all.

Peppermint, The Magic Leave

2009-02-20T09:36:00.000-08:00

At the mention of peppermint, candy canes and ice cream comes to mind. But did you know that peppermint is also an age-old herbal medicine that has been used to treat a wide range of abdominal woes? The oil extracted from the peppermint plant contains a host of compounds, but the most abundant and perhaps the most pharmacologically important is menthol. Studies have shown peppermint oil to be fairly effective at relieving irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a collection of symptoms that includes abdominal pain and cramping, bloating, constipation and diarrhea that affects 5 to 20 percent of the population. One explanation is that the oil—especially the menthol—blocks calcium channels, which has the effect of relaxing the “smooth” muscles in the walls of the intestines. Recently, Alex Ford, a McMaster University researcher, concluded that instead of popular over-the counter drugs, peppermint oil should be the first line of defense against IBS. Peppermint can temporarily allay itching caused by insect bites, eczema and other lesions, including the rash of poison ivy. Peppermint tea can be used as a mouthwash for babies with thrush (yeast in the mouth) or for reducing nausea and vomiting during pregnancy, especially for women who want to avoid stronger medications. Peppermint’s essential oil—menthol—is also an ingredient in many conventional over-the-counter products, including toothpaste, mouthwash, chewing gum, breath mints, chewing tobacco substitutes, cough lozenges and various muscle pain ointments. Menthol stimulates the nerves that sense cold, creating that familiar cooling sensation, and inhibits those that react to painful stimuli, temporarily relieving the pain of muscles and organs that are cramped and in spasm. Your mouth also has some of these nerves, which is why products containing menthol "taste" cool. And, even though the effect doesn’t last long, sometimes even a brief reprieve from a hacking cough or aching muscle can work wonders. Menthol has also been shown helpful in subduing many disease-producing bacteria, fungi and viruses, but because stronger antimicrobials are available, is usually not the first choice in treating serious infections. “Most of the (effective) species are really from the family Lamiaceae, or mint family,” Pavel Kloucek, a scientist at the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague, told Discovery News. Kloucek and his team have recently identified two other mint family members—Mentha villosa and Faassen’s catnip—along with another non-mint herb, bluebeard, as also have bacteria-busting abilities. Moreover, essential oils for horseradish, garlic, hyssop, basil, marjoram, oregano, winter savory and three types of thyme also showed potent antimicrobial activity. The researchers made the discovery while testing the essential oils to determine how well they could, in vapor form, kill the bacteria responsible for Listeria, Staph, E. coli, Salmonella infections, and more. They are hopeful that peppermint oil and others may soon be wafted in vapor form over food to inhibit bacterial growth. Plant essential oils are lipophilic, meaning that they gravitate towards fat, Kloucek explained. “And luckily, in the cell membrane of bacteria, there is plenty of fat, which serves as a seal. Essential oils are attracted to this fat and, as their molecules squeeze in between the fat molecules, they cause leakage of the membrane.” This leakage causes a meltdown that can eventually kill the bacteria. The obvious problem to overcome in treating foods with essential oils to prevent illness is the oils’ potent taste. While strong mint flavor is desirable in a candy cane, it might not work well with other foods. According to Kloucek and his team, the solution is to carefully match the oil with the food. “To overcome unwanted flavors, an essential oil with the best scent best fitting to the taste of the treated product in the lowest possible concentration should be used,” he said. “You will probably not use garlic essential oil to treat grapes, but for some semi-finished meat products it can be suitable.” Kloucek’s findings have been accepted for publication in the journal Food Control. Monique Lacroix, a professor at the INRS-Institute Armand-Frappier in Quebec, told Discovery News that she agrees “essential oils have a powerful antimicrobial property.” She particularly liked Kloucek’s study because it addressed the volatile nature of the oils by studying them in their vapor phase, as opposed to direct application. Some researchers now advise consumers to eat a tablespoon or more of fresh peppermint, and other green herbs daily. A fun way to enjoy peppermint, aside from eating that leftover Christmas candy cane, is by placing peppermint leaves in an ice tray, and then filling the tray with cold water, pushing down any mint leaves that stick out. Put the tray in the freezer for several hours, and then add the peppermint ice cubes to a glass of water, sparkling water, or any other beverage that you enjoy having cold.

Green and Tender, Kiwi for Body

2009-02-20T09:34:00.000-08:00

One of the most underestimated fruits is probably the kiwi. Small, green, and squishy in texture, it is not usually on a person’s mind when they think of grabbing a piece of fruit. An exotic berry from the vine plant Actinidia deliciosa, the kiwifruit’s fuzzy outer surface protects the delicious inside from external forces before it is ready to enjoy.

Originally called the Chinese Gooseberry, to market the fruit more globally, it was renamed “melonette” in the 1950s and then to “kiwifruit” by exporters in New Zealand. A kiwi is the national bird of New Zealand and people from the country are also called “Kiwis,” so in order to alleviate any confusion, kiwifruit is not abbreviated in New Zealand, but most everywhere else the fruit is shortened and known simply as kiwi. Rutgers University recently conducted a study of the 27 most popular fruits—although I do not think I can name that many types of fruit off the top of my head—and named kiwi the “most nutritionally dense” among all of them. The kiwi, with its tangy, saliva-inducing taste, gives you a day’s worth of vitamin C, blood-pressure helping potassium, the antioxidant-rich vitamin E, and lutein, which helps promote good vision. Calorie-counting alert: a kiwi carries only 50 calories and doesn’t involve any muss or fuss to eat. Slice kiwis on top of a fruit tart and bake, layer them in a yogurt parfait or on top of pancakes, or simply slice and spoon into your mouth to enjoy its best benefits. With more fiber than apples and twice the amount of vitamin C as an orange, (minus the seeds, rind, and pulp that tend to get in the way), kiwi also helps reduce damage from free radicals which can lead to long term diseases like cancer later in life. A study published in early 2009 shows the New Zealand-born kiwifruit as a natural body strengthener, great for protecting the body from winter colds and flu season. Zespri kiwifruit, a popular international kiwi exporter, was put into an experiment to test it against the body’s natural defenses. Research showed that the kiwi was able to boost the natural defenses of the body, improve muscle performance and digestive health, and reduce cell damage and inflammation. The findings were published in Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, a Cambridge journal. Zespri’s study merely supports previous reports that the fruit has powers not unlike other defined “super foods” like blueberries, pomegranates, spinach, and garlic among many others. The end result of the study is that it assumes the unassertive kiwi can increase the body’s natural response triggers that are associated with afflictions and diseases such as diabetes, arthritis, obesity, heart disease, and cancer. Kiwifruit protects against enzymes associated with cancers of the lower digestive tract and helps muscles repair from stress caused by exercise. Health science manager from Zespri Incorporated, Lynley Drummond says that the specific report was done to note the added benefits of kiwfruit because it is well known that eating (or drinking) fruit is good for maintaining health, “We all know that consuming fruit is good for us, but we wanted to know if kiwifruit in particular has a beneficial effect on the body’s natural defence system….These studies are an exciting step forward and support growing evidence that Zespri kiwifruit can strengthen the immune system and protect the body in many ways.” So next time you are in the pharmacy aisle in your local supermarket or department store, you may want to forego the expensive cold remedies, vitamins, syrups, preventative flu teas, and effervescent tablets and swing by the produce section first before you open your wallet. If you are feeling under the weather or lethargic—before you get serious symptoms—slice open a kiwi, smile at the tiny black seeds staring back at you, and give your immune system a little boost.

Health and A Bowl of Cherries

2009-02-20T09:33:00.000-08:00

I am sure you’ve heard the old saying, “Life is just a bowl of cherries” and Mary Engelbreit’s clever phrase, “Life is just a chair of bowlies,” reminding us that life can be simple if you let it. Having been born in Michigan, I know that Traverse City is the cherry capitol of the world and I’m sure the citizens of that town understand the importance of cherries, not just for taste but for health. As #7 on HealthNews’ Dozen: Foods for a Longer Life, cherries have a lot to offer on the table besides color. Cherries are known for being rich in antioxidants like their fruit cousin the blueberry, and contain lycopene, vitamin A, and beta-carotene, all helpful for boosting the immune system, the prevention of bad cholesterol, reversing free radicals and protecting from certain cancers caused by free radicals, and the highly touted anti-aging effects. Another popular antioxidant is common in our culture today: red wine. A lot of health benefits have been proven with the consumption of red wine and the potent miracle drink is often on dinner tables across the country perfectly paired with succulent dishes to enhance their flavor and your enjoyment. Chianti—Italy’s famous type of wine—is traditionally infused with herbs, honey and cherries and has culturally been thought to be the secret to a long and healthy life among Italians, Salute! Besides their antioxidant quality, cherries are also part of a balanced diet according to the pH scale. In compliance with a certain level of acidity, the foods you eat should be evenly distributed along the acid scale. By enjoying alkaline foods, they energize you and counteract the acid being absorbed into the bloodstream so your cells can be restored. Too much acid—known as acidosis—is known by some professionals in the healthcare industry to be the main cause of most illnesses. In order to keep your metabolism, digestive and respiratory tracks healthy the acid-alkaline balance in your body needs to be kept in sync, and as one of the alkaline fruits, cherries are a great snack to have around to help you keep your balance. Antioxidants and alkaline balances aside, cherries are the star of a new study involving sleep aids. The University of Texas Health Science Center in San Antonio, Texas, investigated a type of cherry that has specific properties in order to help aid in an uninterrupted and restful sleep. A type of sour cherry, the Montmorency cherry is said to be named after a valley in France, but in the United States is typically found growing around Michigan and in Door County, Wisconsin. Producing a large, red fruit, the Montmorency tree has helped thousands of cherry pies and jams with their tart and sweet flavor. The researchers at the University of Texas found that the Montmorency cherry has a significant amount of melatonin—a hormone found in the brain that regulates your body clock—which helps induce sleep. Melatonin was discovered at Yale University in 1958 and has been found since to decrease with age, leading to many elderly people having sleep troubles. According to a University in Spain, melatonin may also improve your anti-aging properties by slowing down the inflammation process. Both of these reports are good news for the cherry: not only is it naturally an antioxidant, but it may help calm your brain rhythms to help you sleep all while aging you gracefully. I was watching a travel show the other day and saw a restaurant that deep fries everything from pizza to double-dipped cherry pie. While I wouldn’t recommend adding deep fried cherry pie to your diet in order to get a healthy dose of antioxidants, it sounds enticing enough to try once. Even though life may not always seem as simple as a bowl of cherries, your health may just rely on a handful of cherries (weather ripe and juicy or sweet and dried) as an easy way to keep yourself on track.

Teeccino, Alternative to Caffeine

2009-02-20T09:31:00.000-08:00

Trying to cut the caffeine habit can be impossible if you’re used to waking up to a strong brew and refilling your mug a few times a day at the office. Decaffeinated coffees and teas still carry traces of the stimulant that can wreak havoc on your body even if you don’t realize it. Discovered by a German chemist in 1819, the chemical compound in coffee was coined “kaffein” and is synonymously called “guaranine” from the guarana plant’s berries, “theine” found inside tea leaves, and “mateine” when isolated from the yerba mate plant. Either way you pronounce it, inside the human body, caffeine stimulates the central nervous system and produces a temporary feeling of alertness. Many people who drink decaf coffees, espressos, and teas, are either unable or unwilling to feel the consequences of a regularly caffeinated drink, but still enjoy the taste. With Teeccino, decaf-lovers can get the taste of real drip coffee in a natural, herbal mixture without the stimulating aftershock of caffeine. Caroline MacDougall, an herb expert and creator of Teeccino, was working for various tea brands as an herbalist before she started making a name for herself in the early '90s with her own mixture she calls “herbal coffee,” a replacement way to drink your coffee without the addictive or dangerous qualities of caffeine. Knowing that many people are addicted to caffeine through coffees and teas, Carolyn sought a way to bring her knowledge of the Mediterranean rainforest to her morning cup and then share it. The basic ingredients of her herbal coffee are a simple and delicious blend of roots, nuts and fruit found in nature: roasted carob, barley, chicory root, figs, dates and almonds. Drinking a coffee alternative can still imitate the rush that coffee can give you in the morning without the negative health effects associated with caffeine. For example, each cup of Teeccino is infused with around 80 milligrams of potassium which sends oxygen to your brain causing an energy boost that just might help you start you day. So you’re probably wondering why a certified organic “herbal coffee” drink would be any healthier for you than a regular cup of java if it also has a stimulant in it—albeit a natural mineral—to help you be more alert. Caffeine can lead to infertility, it is a leading cause of stress by helping put your heart under pressure, and caffeine is a large inhibitor of heart disease. By shocking your nerves into having more energy, caffeine also stimulates your hunger, making you more susceptible to sweet cravings, ultimately spiking your blood sugar which can lead to a sugar intolerance or diabetes. Anxiety and depression are also linked to caffeine and the stimulant actually decreases your memory and cognitive skills. Sean Paajanen, coffee and tea guide from About.com, applauds Teeccino’s efforts to be unlike other coffee alternatives and doesn’t mind the taste, “An excellent herbal coffee that contains no caffeine, but does taste remarkably just like regular coffee. No need to deny yourself in the mornings if you want to cut your caffeine.” Paajanen continues, “I've tried a few coffee substitutes…but was always disappointed to find they don't really taste like the coffee I know and love. I have been completely impressed with Teeccino, as the first coffee substitute I have found that tastes like coffee. Really. It has the rich, full-bodied taste that I love in my cup. And the many flavours make this a very versatile product to enjoy.” So next time you have a caffeine headache and you drive through your local coffee cart, think how much you could save your body and your wallet by using a healthy alternative. Even if herbal coffee doesn’t taste exactly like your precious Starbucks latte, your homemade drip, or Peet’s best cup of tea, it might be worth a try to save your future health.

Baked Apples for Winter

2009-02-20T09:29:00.000-08:00

Apples are in season in the northern part of the US from late summer to early winter. Luckily, many varieties are available year around thanks to cold storage techniques and different growing seasons in the southern states. Believe it or not, apples are members of the rose family, and because they have a compartmentalized core, they are classified as a pome fruit. Apples range in color, having either red or green or yellow skins. Taste varies with the variety of apple, from the tart Gravenstein, Pippin and Granny Smith, to the sweetness of the Red and Golden Delicious. Apples not only taste good, they are good for you too. Apples are a good source of fiber, with the most fiber being found in their skins. If you feel the need to peel your apples because of waxes or possible pesticides, buy organic apples whenever possible. Apples contain many vitamins including Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Tiamin-B1, Riboflavin-B2, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Biotin, Vitamin E and Vitamin K. They also contain essential minerals your body needs like Potassium, Magnesium, Iron and Calcium. One of the favorite and traditional Halloween party games is bobbing for apples. But what can you do with the left over apples other than making apple pie? Try this healthy, easy and low fat alternative for a change of pace. To add more zing to this fall favorite, top them off with a scoop of low fat frozen yogurt. INGREDIENTS: 1/4 cup chopped walnuts 1/4 cup dried cranberries or raisins 1/4 tsp cinnamon 1/4 cup brown sugar 4 Granny Smith apples PREPARATION: Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Combine walnuts, dried fruit, cinnamon and sugar in a bowl. Core apples and place in a baking dish. Spoon one-fourth of the ingredients into each apple. Bake for 40 minutes or until apples are tender. Servings: 4 Calories: 287, Calories from Fat 50, Total Fat: 5.5g (sat 0.5g), Cholesterol: 0mg, Sodium: 6mg, Carbohydrate: 57.5g, Fiber: 6.8g, Protein: 1.7g The scent of baking apples will fill your home with a warm aroma that is perfect for the fall air. Not only will your home smell wonderful, but you will feel good too, knowing you are making a healthy and low fat dessert for your family. Enjoy!

Broccoli and Tomato to Protect from Prostat Cancer

2009-02-20T09:28:00.000-08:00

Eating broccoli and tomato has, for some time, been highly recommended for preventing and fighting cancer. However, recent researchers from Illinois and Ohio Universities1 have found combining the tomato and broccoli in the daily diet more effective in reducing prostate cancerous tumour growths than either tomato or broccoli eaten alone. Even for those who don’t have prostate cancer there is mounting evidence that combining tomato and broccoli in your daily diet could reduce the risk of contracting prostate and other cancers. The researchers compared the single effect of tomato powder and the single effect of broccoli powders added to the diet of rats and compared this with a combination of 10% tomato and 10% broccoli powders. The discovered that the combined powders acted in a complementary fashion and decreased tumour weight by more than a half (52%). This was favourably comparable to the much more radical and intrusive approach of castration. It is expected that these excellent results achieved with rats could be replicated in human males. It was estimated that in 2006 prostate cancer accounted for over a third of all new cancer cases and almost 10% of deaths in United States men. While the roles of fruit and vegetables has been intensively studied in the past, researchers have typically examined specific chemical components derived from fruits and vegetables to isolate the specific cancer fighting agents rather than the whole of fruit or vegetable approach. Cancer is a disease that can form when the body lacks critical substances. These substances can be found in different types of vegetables and fruits and are metabolically essential for the normal protection of the body. Therefore it is essential to eat a diverse variety of fruits and vegetables as they contain the nutrients that work together in subtle synergy offering the best possible disease protective effect. For example, tomatoes contain tomato carotenoid, a known cancer fighter, but also thousands of different phytochemicals which stimulate anti-cancer activity in the body. Likewise broccoli, a member of the cruciferous vegetables, contains sulphur compounds that are known to be a mechanism that delays cancer growth. By combining these two known vegetables together they provide a powerful anti-cancer effect. So how much do I need to eat to gain the benefits? Eating both broccoli and tomato daily is all that is required to obtain the anti-cancer benefits. It is suggested that men should regularly eat servings of up to three quarters of a head of broccoli and two to three tomatoes at least five times per week to help fight the disease. Cooked tomatoes may be better than raw. Simply put, eating a variety of fruits and vegetables prepared in a variety of ways will give you the best chance of cancer survival and good health.

Grapes Helped Stroke Patients Recover

2009-02-20T09:25:00.000-08:00

If you eat grapes, you may be able to minimise the brain damage caused by a stroke, according to a recent study. If you eat grapes, you may be able to minimise the brain damage caused by a stroke, according to a recent study. And where did I learn about this study? Over the intercom at my local supermarket. The intercom volume at the supermarket where I shop is turned down low, so I'm guessing that the grape information (which turned out to be an advertisement for grape juice) was supposed to be almost subliminal - just whispered in my ear - so that I would make a beeline for the beverage aisle and pick up a carton of grape juice, even though it wasn't on my list and I had no specific desire for grape juice. What struck me most about the intercom ad was the way it casually referred to the 'high antioxidant' content of grapes. Only a few short years ago the concept of free-radical-fighting antioxidants didn't even show up on the mainstream radar. But in 2004 the word 'antioxidant' gets piped in over supermarket store intercoms, as if everyone knows what an antioxidant is, what it does, and why it's good. We've certainly come a long way. Delayed reaction Meanwhile... we already know that grapes are good for us. Dark-skinned grapes in particular contain resveratrol, an antioxidant that has been shown to reduce cardiovascular and cancer risks. As I've written in previous e-Alerts, the reputation of red wine as a relatively healthy alcoholic beverage is due primarily to the effects of resveratrol. Now winemakers have another reason to thank those scientists who devote their careers to resveratrol research. A new study from the University of Missouri-Columbia (UM-C) in the US shows that resveratrol intake may help minimise the brain damage that emerges after a stroke has occurred. When a blockage reduces blood flow and triggers a stroke, the brain's oxygen supply is interrupted, prompting neurons to release amino acids. This causes calcium to move into the neurons and triggers the generation of free radicals, which can cause delayed cell death several days after the initial onset of a stroke. The UM-C study appears in a recent issue of the Journal of Brain Research, which is not published online, so the readily available information comes from a UM-C press release, which unfortunately overlooks some key details. Using laboratory animals (which I'm assuming were somehow artificially induced to experience strokes), the UM-C team found that resveratrol neutralised enough free radicals to help prevent some of the neuron damage. The press release states, 'The researchers found a remarkable difference between brain cells that had been treated with resveratrol and those that had not.' By now we know that all study reports need to be carefully examined and taken with a grain of salt. But at face value, this research would seem to provide a basis for further study using human subjects.

Fruits and Vegetable Juices for good health

2009-02-20T09:22:00.000-08:00

Freshly made juices are a very good source of vitamins and minerals. Vitamins activate enzymes which act as catalysts in hundreds of thousands of chemical reactions that take place throughout our body. Enzymes produce energy and are essential for digesting, absorbing and converting food into body tissue. Without vitamins, enzymes could not carry out their work, and we could not live. Our body can absorb more vitamins and minerals if we drink fresh juices than if we eat the fruits and vegetables whole. By blending fruits and vegetables to make juices and smoothies, we break down the fibers to release the trapped nutrients. Juicing Tips

Wash the fruits and vegetables thoroughly before juicing. Remove damaged portions, if any.
Use organic produce where possible.
Juice with stems and leaves. Remove the stems and leaves of carrots, as they are toxic. The leaves of celery are bitter so you may remove them.
You may use seeds of lemon, lime, oranges, etc. Do not use apple seeds, as they are toxic.
Do not use the skins of orange and grapefruits, as they are toxic. Do not throw away the white pithy part as they are a source of vitamin C and bioflvonoids.
You can garnish the juices with black pepper, salt, lemon juice, parsley, cilantro (coriander), cinnamon, etc.

Food as Anti Aging

2009-02-20T09:19:00.001-08:00

Incorporating foods high in antioxidants (which protect against free radicals) into your diet could ward off the effects of aging. Antioxidants are found in fruits and vegetables. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC), developed by USDA is a measure of antioxidant content of foods. The following foods are super foods as they contain up to 20 times the antioxidant content of other foods. So these foods, if included in daily diet 9up to 3000 ORAC) can be good for your antiaging effort. ORAC of some of the super foods are given below: FOOD 1/2 cup: ORAC Score

Prunes: 5770
Raisins: 2830
Blueberries: 2400
Blackberries: 2036
Kale: 1770
Strawberries: 1540
Spinach: 1260
Raspberries: 1220

Besides the following foods, you should also eat super foods of cholesterol and heart, super foods for brain power 1.Dark green leafy cruciferous vegetables The family of cruciferous vegetables includes cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, turnip, Brussels sprouts, radish and watercress. These vegetables are rich in vitamin C, carotenoids (lutein and zeaxanthin) and anti-cancer substances such as sulphoraphane and genistein. These vegetables also help to prevent cataracts and macular degeneration in eyes. 2.Tomatoes Tomatoes are a rich source of lycopene - a powerful antioxidant that protects against coronary heart disease and cancer especially cancer of the lung, stomach, mouth, colon, rectum and prostate gland. 3.Garlic & Ginger Garlic herb has antioxidant, antiseptic, antibacterial and antiviral properties and can reduce high blood pressure, lower LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, reduce blood stickiness and dilate blood vessels. It is also helpful in treating intestinal, respiratory and skin infections. It is believed that eating a clove of garlic a day helps to protect the body against cancer and heart disease. 4.Soybeans Soybeans contain isoflavones that help to prevent ageing due to hormone imbalances. Soya may protect against breast and prostate cancers, Alzheimer's disease, osteoporosis and heart disease. Soya helps to maintain oestrogen levels in menopausal women. 5.Berries All black and blue berries such as blackberries, blueberries, blackcurrants and black grapes contain phytochemicals, powerful antioxidants. 6.Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds are rich in vitamin E, potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, selenium and essential fatty acids like omega-3 fatty acids. Eat a handful, about 30 g daily. Note the details of nutrition of nuts and seeds. 7.Yogurt Yogurt (curd, yoghurt) helps to boost immunity and improves digestion and the absorption of nutrients from the gut. 8.Honey The research carried out in 2007 on rats at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand revealed that honey could be used to combat the effects of ageing, including memory decline and anxiety. Researcher Nicola Starkey said, "Diets sweetened with honey may be beneficial in decreasing anxiety and improving memory during ageing."

Grapefruit Ambrosia

2009-02-15T15:41:00.000-08:00

Ingredients: 5 pounds grapefruit (preferably half pink and half red), 5 large, 6 medium, or 7 to 8 small 1 cup sweetened flaked coconut 2 tablespoons Campari* 2 tablespoons sugar Salt * Campari is a bitter Italian aperitif made according to a secret recipe originally developed in 1860 by Gaspare Campari in Milan. It is a bright pale cherry-pink color. Cut peel including all white pith from each fruit with a sharp paring knife. Cut each segment from each fruit free from membranes. Halve grapefruit segments crosswise and transfer pieces to a bowl. Stir in coconut, Campari, sugar, and just a pinch of salt. Refrigerate, covered, at least 15 minutes or up to 4 hours. Makes 4 servings.

Watermelon Sorbet

2009-02-15T15:37:00.000-08:00

Ingredients: 1/2 cup sugar 4 1/2 cups fresh pureed watermelon pulp, seeds removed. divided* 1/8 teaspoon salt 2 tablespoons freshly squeezed lemon juice or lime juice (your choice) 2 tablespoons Anisette Liqueur * Puree watermelon in a food processor or blender. In a medium saucepan over medium-high heat, combine sugar, 1/2 cup watermelon juice, and ssalt; bring to a boil. Boil 30 to 45 seconds sugar completely dissolves. Remove from heat and let stand approximately 10 minutes. If making ahead, store in refrigerator To the remaining 4 cups pureed watermelon pulp, add sugar syrup, lemon juice, and Anisette Liqueur; stir until thoroughly blended. NOTE: The Anisette (or any other type of alcohol) is the secret to a soft sorbet. Alcohol itself does not freeze and adding a little bit keeps the sorbet from doing the same. Freezer Method - Pour into container, cover, and place mixture in the freezer. When it is semi-solid, mash it up with a fork and refreeze again. When frozen, place in a food processor or blender and process until smooth. Cover and refreeze until serving time. NOTE: Can be prepared 3 days in advance. Cover and keep frozen. Makes 4 to 6 servings.

Mango Melon Soup

2009-02-15T15:34:00.001-08:00

1 small cantaloupe, peeled and cubed 1 ripe banana, peeled and chunked 3 mangos, peeled and cubed 1 tablespoon fresh lemon juice 1 tablespoon honey Dash pure vanilla extract Mint Leaves, for garnish Fresh Raspberries, for garnish Place cantaloupe cubes, banana chunks, 1/2 of the mango cubes, lemon juice, honey, and vanilla extract in blender; blend until smooth. Refrigerate mixture for several hours or overnight. Refrigerate the remaining mango cubes separately. When ready to serve, divide mango cubes among 8 small dessert cups. Stir chilled fruit mixture and pour evenly over mango cubes in each dessert cup. To serve, garnish each with a mint leaf and raspberries. Makes 8 servings.

Perada (Pear Cheese or Pear Jelly)

2009-02-15T15:30:00.000-08:00

Ingredients: 6 or 7 medium pears (enough to make 3 cups puree) 2 1/2 cups caster or superfine sugar 7 ounces water Juice of 1/2 lemon 4 tablespoons liquid pectin (optional) Cook the pears in boiling water, whole and unpeeled, until soft. Peel when still slightly warm and sieve the pulp using a food mill or a metal spoon and wire mesh strainer. NOTE: You should have 3 cups of pear purée. The amount of sugar should be about 3/4 that of the purée. Dissolve the sugar in 7 ounces of water. Boil syrup for a few minutes until it reaches 218° F, and add the pear puree and lemon juice. Continue to cook, stirring, until it reaches a rapid boil; boil for a few minutes, then reduce heat to low. Cook for an hour or so, stirring often enough so it doesn’t stick to the bottom, until the mixture reduces and thickens. It will be ready when the mixture pulls away from the sides of the pan. Fill bowls or molds, cool completely, and refrigerate until set. Chef’s Note: To mold the perada into a form that will hold its shape for slicing, you can add liquid pectin, or include an apple along with the pears while cooking. This will help the perada to set fully so it can be sliced, since pears are naturally low in pectin. Pour into molds and allow to set fully. Once set and completely cooled, unmold and slice. To serve, unmold and either set whole on your serving platter or slice and serve with a variety of cheeses. NOTE: Create a cheese platter with the best cheeses you can afford. Makes about 16 ounces of jelly

Spinach Salad With Strawberries

2009-02-15T15:23:00.000-08:00

Ingredients: Honey Dressing (see recipe below) 2 bunches fresh spinach leaves, washed, dried, and chilled 1 cup thickly sliced fresh strawberries 1 tablespoon sliced almonds or sesame seeds, toasted 1 small red onion, thinly sliced (optional) Prepare Honey Dressing; set aside. Remove stems and veins from spinach and tear into bite-sized pieces; place into a large salad bowl. Toss spinach with 1/4 cup of Honey Dressing for every 6 cups of spinach greens; toss gently. Add strawberries, sliced almonds or sesame seeds, and onion; toss again and serve. Makes 6 to 8 servings. HONEY DRESSING: 2 tablespoons balsamic vinegar 2 tablespoons rice vinegar 1 tablespoon plus 1 teaspoon honey 2 teaspoons Dijon mustard Coarse salt and freshly-ground pepper to taste In a small jar with a lid, combine balsamic vinegar, rice vinegar, honey, Dijon mustard, salt, and pepper; cover securely and shake vigorously. Store, covered, in the refrigerator. Serve at room temperature.

Strawberries & Balsamic Vinegar

2009-02-15T15:20:00.000-08:00

Ingredients: Fresh strawberries, washed, hulled or unhulled, and dried 1/2 cup good-quality balsamic vinegar 1 cup powdered (confectioners) sugar Place strawberries, balsamic, and powdered sugar in separate bowls. To serve, let each guest dip a strawberry into balsamic vinegar and then into powdered sugar.

English Trifle

2009-02-15T15:16:00.000-08:00

Ingredients: 1 (18 1/4-ounce) package yellow cake mix* 1 cup raspberry jam, divided** 1 (29-ounce) can sliced peaches, drained (reserve juice) 1/2 cup sherry, or brandy, divided (optional)*** 1 (6-serving size) vanilla pudding mix (not instant) 3 cups milk 2 cups sweetened whipping cream Sliced toasted almonds * A purchased sponge cake may be substituted. ** Your favorite jam can be substituted. *** You can omit the liquor if you don't use alcohol in your cooking. Prepare the yellow cake according to package directions using a 9-inch cake pan (reserve one layer for another use). Slice one baked cake layer horizontally into two equal layers. Place one sliced layer into a trifle dish or a large glass bowl with straight sides; cover with 1/2 cup jam and half of the sliced peaches. Pour approximately half of the reserved peach juice over the cake or until it is moist but not sloppy. Pour 1/4 cup sherry or brandy over the top, as evenly as possible. Place the second sliced cake layer on top and cover with remaining jam and peaches; pour remaining peach juice and sherry or brandy over the top. Prepare the vanilla pudding according to package directions, using the 3 cups of milk. Pour hot pudding over the top of the cake; let cool. When cool, spread with whipped cream. Decorate with toasted sliced almonds. Cover with plastic wrap and refrigerate overnight. Makes 10 to 12 servings.

Contact

2009-02-15T12:21:00.000-08:00

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Thank you for visiting my blog, for any comment or more articles please send to my email at: donyiskandar@gmail.com or see more my profile Please welcome back and see you.

Dony Iskandar

Rambutan

2009-02-15T10:33:00.000-08:00

Rambutan The rambutan (IPA: [ramˈbu.t̪ɑn], Nephelium lappaceum) is a medium-sized tropical tree in the family Sapindaceae, and the fruit of this tree. It is native to Indonesia and Southeast Asia, although its precise natural distribution is unknown. It is closely related to several other edible tropical fruits including the Lychee, Longan, and Mamoncillo. It is believed to be native to the Malay Archipelago.[1]. Rambutan in Indonesian or Malay literally means hairy caused by the 'hair' that covers this fruit. In Panama, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, it is known as mamón chino. There is a second species regularly for sale at Malay markets which is known as "wild" rambutan. It is a little smaller than the usual red variety and is colored yellow. Description It is an evergreen tree growing to a height of 10–20 m.The leaves are alternate, 10–30 cm long, pinnate, with 3-11 leaflets, each leaflet 5–15 cm wide and 3-10 cm broad, with an entire margin.The flowers are small, 2.5–5 mm, apetalous, discoidal, and borne in erect terminal panicles 15–30 cm wide.Rambutan trees are either male (producing only staminate flowers and, hence, produce no fruit), female (producing flowers that are only functionally female), or hermaphroditic (producing flowers that are female with a small percentage of male flowers). The fruit is a round to oval drupe 3–6 cm (rarely to 8 cm) tall and 3-4 cm broad, borne in a loose pendant cluster of 10-20 together. The leathery skin is reddish (rarely orange or yellow), and covered with fleshy pliable spines, hence the name rambutan, derived from the Malay word rambut which means hairs. The fruit flesh is translucent, whitish or very pale pink, with a sweet, mildly acidic flavour. The single seed is glossy brown, 2–3 cm, with a white basal scar. The seed is soft and crunchy. They are mildly poisonous when raw, but may be cooked and eaten. Cultivation and uses Rambutan is adapted to warm tropical climates and is sensitive to temperatures below 10° C, and is grown commercially within 15° of the equator. The trees do best on deep soils that are high in organic matter and thrive on hilly terrain as they require good drainage. Rambutan is propagated by grafting, air-layering, and budding; the latter is most common as trees grown from seed often produce sour fruit. Budded trees may fruit after 2-3 years with optimum production occurring after 8-10 years. Trees grown from seed bear after 5-6 years. The aril is attached to the seed in some commercial cultivars, but "freestone" cultivators are available and in high demand. There is usually a single light brown seed which is high in certain fats and oils (primarily oleic acid and eicosanoic acid) valuable to industry, and used in cooking and the manufacture of soap. Rambutan roots, bark, and leaves have various uses in medicine and in the production of dyes. Rambutan trees bear twice annually, once in late fall and early winter with a shorter season in late spring and early summer. The fragile nutritious fruit must ripen on the tree, then they are harvested over a four to seven week period. The fresh fruit are easily bruised and have a limited shelf life. An average tree may produce 5,000-6,000 or more fruit (60-70 kg or 130-155 lb per tree). Yields begin at 1.2 tonnes per hectare (0.5 tons/acre) in young orchards and may reach 20 tonnes per hectare (8 tons per acre) on mature trees. In Hawaii, 24 of 38 cultivated hectares (60 of 95 acres) were harvested producing 120 tonnes of fruit in 1997. It has been suggested that yields could be increased via improved orchard management, including pollination, and by planting high yielding compact cultivars. Most commercial cultivars are hermaphroditic (producing flowers that are female with a small percentage of male flowers); cultivars that produce only functionally female flowers require the presence of male trees. Male trees are seldom found as vegetative selection has favored hermaphroditic clones that produce a high proportion of functionally female flowers and a much lower number of flowers that produce pollen. There are over 3000 greenish-white flowers in male panicles, each with 5-7 anthers and a non-functional ovary. Male flowers have yellow nectaries and 5-7 stamens. There are about 500 greenish-yellow flowers in each hermaphroditic panicle. Each flower has six anthers, usually a bi-lobed stigma, and one ovule in each of its two sections (locules). The flowers are receptive for about one day but may persist if pollinators are excluded. In Thailand Rambutan and Thai Fruits Festivals The rambutan trees were first planted in Surat Thani in 1926 by the Chinese Malay Mr. K. Vong in Ban Na San. An annual rambutan fair is held in beginning of August. In Malaysia, rambutan flowers from March to July and again between July and November, usually in response to rain following a dry period. Flowering periods differ for other localities. Most, but not all, flowers open early in the day. Up to 100 flowers in each female panicle may be open each day during peak bloom. Initial fruit set may approach 25% but a high level of abortion contributes to a much lower level of production at harvest (1 to 3%). The fruit matures 15-18 weeks after flowering. Both male and female flowers are faintly sweet scented and have functional nectaries at the ovary base. Female flowers produce 2-3 times more nectar than male flowers. Nectar sugar concentration ranges between 18-47% and is similar between the flower types. Rambutan is an important nectar source for bees in Malaysia. Cross-pollination is a necessity because pollen is absent in most functionally female flowers. Although apomixis may occur in some cultivars, research has shown that rambutan, like lychee, is dependent upon insects for pollination. In Malaysia, where only about one percent of the female flowers set fruit, research revealed that no fruit is set on bagged flowers while hand pollination resulted in 13 percent fruit set. These studies further suggest that pollinators may maintain a fidelity to either male or hermaphroditic flowers (trees), thus limiting pollination and fruit set under natural conditions where crossing between male and female flowers is required. Cultivars There are well over 200 cultivars developed from selected clones available throughout tropical Asia. Most of the cultivars are also selected for compact growth reaching a height of only 3-5 m for easier harvesting. Some seedling trees in Nicaragua are nearly 50% hermaphrodite. The seeds were given by representatives from a World Relief / European Union joint team in 2001 to organizations such as APAC (Ascociación Pueblos en Acción Comunitaria) to distribute the seeds to more than 100 farmers throughout Nicaragua. Some of Nicaragua's farmers in 2005-2006 saw the first production of Rambutan from their trees. Commercial production of the fruit for domestic use is sought in the country, as it is finding favor among Nicaraguans, but it will be several years before growing practices and distribution of the fruits are perfected. Other than seedling trees, the only known commercial cultivars in Nicaragua are R134, R162 and a Yellow Rambutan that lost its name when it was smuggled from Honduras in 2004-2005 (Frankie, J. A., Winrock International). References

World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1998). Nephelium lappaceum. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 12 May 2006.
Fruits of Warm Climates: Rambutan
Know and Enjoy Tropical Fruit: Lychee, Rambutan and Longan
Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae)
Sorting Nephelium names

Water Melon

2009-02-15T10:29:00.000-08:00

Watermelon Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum & Nakai, family Cucurbitaceae) refers to both fruit and plant of a vine-like (climber and trailer) herb originally from southern Africa and one of the most common types of melon. This flowering plant produces a special type of fruit known by botanists as a pepo, which has a thick rind (exocarp) and fleshy center (mesocarp and endocarp); pepos are derived from an inferior ovary and are characteristic of the Cucurbitaceae. The watermelon fruit, loosely considered a type of melon (although not in the genus Cucumis), has a smooth exterior rind (green and yellow) and a juicy, sweet, usually red, but sometimes orange, yellow, or pink interior flesh. History David Livingstone, an explorer of Africa, described watermelon as abundant in the Kalahari desert, where it is believed to have originated. There, the ancestral melon grows wild and is known as the Tsamma melon (Citrullus lanatus var tastius).[citation needed] It is also known in Zimbabwe as 'nwiwa, mwiwa or iswe'. The plant has pinnatifid leaves. The flesh is similar to the rind of a watermelon and is often known as citron melon (distinct from the actual citron, of the citrus family); it is used for making jam and other preserves, and has a high content of pectin.[citation needed] It has established itself in the wild in Baja California.[citation needed] It is not known when the plant was first cultivated, but Zohary and Hopf note evidence of its cultivation in the Nile Valley from at least as early as the second millennium BC. Finds of the characteristically large seed are reported in Twelfth dynasty sites; numerous watermelon seeds were recovered from the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun,although the existence of the fruit in ancient Egypt is not certain because it is not depicted in any hieroglyphic text nor does any ancient writer mention it. It wasn't present in any other culture of the ancient Mediterranean. By the 10th century AD, watermelons were being cultivated in China, which is today the world's single largest watermelon producer. By the 13th century, Moorish invaders had introduced the fruit to Europe; and, according to John Mariani's The Dictionary of American Food and Drink, "watermelon" made its first appearance in an English dictionary in 1615. In Vietnam, legend holds that watermelon was discovered in Vietnam long before it reached China, in the era of the Hùng Kings. According to legend, watermelon was discovered by Prince Mai An Tiêm, an adopted son of the 11th Hùng King. When he was exiled unjustly to an island, he was told that if he could survive for six months, he would be allowed to return. When he prayed for guidance, a bird flew past and dropped a seed. He cultivated the seed and called its fruit "dưa tây" or western melon, because the birds who ate it flew from the west. When the Chinese took over Vietnam in about 110 BC, they called the melons "dưa hảo" (good melon) or "dưa hấu", "dưa Tây", "dưa hảo", "dưa hấu"—all words for "watermelon". An Tiêm's island is now a peninsula in the suburban district of Nga Sơn. Museums Online South Africa list watermelons as having been introduced to North American Indians in the 1500s. Early French explorers found Native Americans cultivating the fruit in the Mississippi Valley. Many sources list the watermelon as being introduced in Massachusetts as early as 1629. Southern food historian John Egerton has said he believes African slaves helped introduce the watermelon to the United States. Texas Agricultural Extension horticulturalist Jerry Parsons lists African slaves and European colonists as having distributed watermelons to many areas of the world. Parsons also mentions the crop being farmed by Native Americans in Florida (by 1664) and the Colorado River area (by 1799). Other early watermelon sightings include the Midwestern states (1673), Connecticut (1747), and the Illiana region (1822). Charles Fredric Andrus, a horticulturist at the USDA Vegetable Breeding Laboratory in Charleston, South Carolina, set out to produce a disease-resistant and wilt-resistant watermelon. The result was "that gray melon from Charleston." Its oblong shape and hard rind made it easy to stack and ship. Its adaptability meant it could be grown over a wide geographical area. It produced high yields and was resistant to the most serious watermelon diseases: anthracnose and fusarium wilt. Today, farmers in approximately 44 states in the U.S. grow watermelon commercially, and almost all these varieties have some Charleston Gray in their lineage. Georgia, Florida, Texas, California and Arizona are the USA's largest watermelon producers. This now-common watermelon is often large enough that groceries often sell half or quarter melons. There are also some smaller, spherical varieties of watermelon, both red- and yellow-fleshed, sometimes called "icebox melons." Culture For commercial plantings, one beehive per acre (over 9,000 m² per hive) is the minimum recommendation by the US Department of Agriculture for pollination of conventional, seeded varieties. Because seedless hybrids have sterile pollen, pollinizer rows of varieties with viable pollen must also be planted. Since the supply of viable pollen is reduced and pollination is much more critical in producing the seedless variety, the recommended number of hives per acre, or pollinator density, increases to three hives per acre (1,300 m² per hive). In Japan, farmers of the Zentsuji region found a way to grow cubic watermelons, by growing the fruits in glass boxes and letting them naturally assume the shape of the receptacle. The square shape is designed to make the melons easier to stack and store, but the square watermelons are often more than double the price of normal ones. Pyramid shaped watermelons have also been developed. Seedless watermelons Although so-called "seedless" watermelons have far fewer seeds than the seeded varieties, they generally contain at least a few soft, pale seeds. They are the product of crossing a female tetraploid plant (itself the product of genetic manipulation, using colchicine) with diploid pollen. The resulting triploid plant is sterile, but will produce the seedless fruit if pollenized by a diploid plant. For this reason, commercially available seedless watermelon seeds actually contain two varieties of seeds; that of the triploid seedless plant itself (recognizable because the seed is larger), and the diploid plant which is needed to pollenize the triploid. Unless both plant types are grown in the same vicinity, no seedless fruit will result. Nutrition Fresh watermelon may be eaten in a variety of ways and is also often used to flavor summer drinks and smoothies. Watermelon contains about six percent sugar by weight, the rest being mostly water. As with many other fruits, it is a source of vitamin C. It is not a significant source of other vitamins and minerals unless one eats several kilograms per day. The amino acid citrulline was first extracted from watermelon and analysed. [5] Watermelons contain a significant amount of citrulline and after consumption of several kg an elevated concentration is measured in the blood plasma, this could be mistaken for citrullinaemia or other urea cycle disorder. Watermelon rinds are also edible, and sometimes used as a vegetable. In China, they are stir-fried, stewed, or more often pickled. When stir-fried, the de-skinned and de-fruited rind is cooked with olive oil, garlic, chili peppers, scallions, sugar and rum. Pickled watermelon rind is also commonly consumed in the Southern US, [7] Russia, Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria. In Balkans, specially Serbia, watermelon slatko is also popular. Watermelon seeds are rich in fat and protein, and are widely eaten as a snack, added to other dishes, or used as an oilseed. Specialized varieties are grown which have little watery flesh but concentrate their energy into seed production. In China watermelon seeds are one of the most common snack foods, competing with sunflower seeds, and sold roasted and seasoned.In West Africa, they are pressed for oil, and are popular in egusi soup and other dishes. There can be some confusion between seed-specialized watermelon varieties and the colocynth, a closely-related species with which they share many characteristics, uses, and similar or identical names.Watermelon is 92 percent water by weight.Watermelon is also mildly diuretic.Watermelon with red flesh is a significant source of lycopene.A traditional food plant in Africa, this fruit has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.Some people also prepare and eat watermelon peel (i.e., rind) Varieties There are more than twelve hundred varieties of watermelon ranging in size from less than a pound, to more than two hundred pounds with flesh that is red, orange, yellow, or white. Several notable varieties are included here. Carolina Cross: This variety of watermelon produced the current world record watermelon weighing 262 pounds. It has green skin, red flesh and commonly produces fruit between 65 and 150 pounds. It takes about 90 days from planting to harvest.* Yellow Crimson Watermelon: variety of watermelon that has a yellow colored flesh. This particular type of watermelon has been described as "sweeter" and more "honey" flavored than the more popular red flesh watermelon. Orangeglo: This variety has a very sweet orange pulp, and is a large oblong fruit weighing 9-14kg (20-30 pounds). It has a light green rind with jagged dark green stripes. It takes about 90-100 days from planting to harvest.* The Moon and Stars variety of watermelon has been around since 1926. The rind is purple/black and has many small yellow circles (stars) and one or two large yellow circles (moon). The melon weighs 9-23kg (20-50 pounds).The flesh is pink or red and has brown seeds. The foliage is also spotted. The time from planting to harvest is about 90 days. Cream of Saskatchewan: This variety consists of small round fruits, around 25cm (10 inches) in diameter. It has a quite thin, light green with dark green striped rind, with sweet white flesh and black seeds. It can grow well in cool climates. It was originally brought to Saskatchewan, Canada by Russian immigrants. These melons take 80-85 days from planting to harvest. Melitopolski: This variety has small round fruits roughly 28-30cm (11-12 inches) in diameter. It is an early ripening variety that originated from the Volga River region of Russia, an area known for cultivation of watermelons. The Melitopolski watermelons are seen piled high by vendors in Moscow in summer. This variety takes around 95 days from planting to harvest. Densuke Watermelon: This variety has round fruit up to 25 lb (11 kg). The rind is black with no stripes or spots. It is only grown on the island of Hokkaido, Japan, where up to 10 000 watermelons are produced every year. In June 2008, one of the first harvested watermelons was sold at an auction for 650 000 yen (6300 USD), making the most expensive watermelon ever sold. The average selling price is generally around 25 000 yen (250 USD). Cultural uses and references Watermelons are used in many parts of the world as symbols and during various celebrations. Art related to the Mexican holiday Dia de los Muertos commonly depicts watermelons being eaten by the dead or shown in close conjunction with the dead. This theme appears regularly on ceramics and in other art from the holiday. Watermelons also appear as a subject in Mexican still life art. In Vietnam watermelon is used as part of the Vietnamese New Year's holiday, Tết, because it is considered a lucky colour. The seeds are also consumed during the holiday as a snack. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, African Americans often were depicted in racist caricatures as being inordinately fond of watermelon. The Oklahoma State Senate passed a bill on 17 April 2007 declaring watermelon as the official state vegetable, with some controversy as the watermelon is a fruit. The Citrulline which exists in watermelon (especially in the rind) is a known stimulator of nitric oxide, NO is thought to relax and expand blood vessels, much like the erectile dysfunction drug, Viagra, and may even increase libido,however no one knows how much watermelon you would have to eat to see similar results to these drug products. References

United States Watermelon Speed Eating and Seed Spitting Championships held during Pardeeville Watermelon Festival in Chandler Park, Pardeeville, WI, USA, first Saturday after Labor Day. - M
Blomberg, Marina (June 10, 2004). "In Season: Savory Summer Fruits." The Gainesville Sun. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
"An African Native of World Popularity." Texas A&M University Aggie Horticulture website. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
Blomberg, Marina (June 10, 2004). "In Season: Savory Summer Fruits." The Gainesville Sun. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
"Charles Fredric Andrus: Watermelon Breeder." Cucurbit Breeding Horticultural Science. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
"Crop Production: Icebox Watermelons." Washington State University Vancouver Research and Extension Unit website. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
Hamish, Robertson. "Citrullus lanatus (Watermelon, Tsamma)." Museums Online South Africa. Retrieved Mar. 15, 2005.
Motes, J.E.; Damicone, John; Roberts, Warren; Duthie, Jim; Edelson, Jonathan. "Watermelon Production." Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
Parsons, Jerry, Ph.D. (June 5, 2002). "Gardening Column: Watermelons." Texas Cooperative Extension of the Texas A&M University System. Jul. 17, 2005.
"Redneck Olympics." ISKRA television. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
Shosteck, Robert (1974). Flowers and Plants: An International Lexicon with Biographical Notes. Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co.: New York.
"Watermelon." The George Mateljan Foundation for The World's Healthiest Foods. Retrieved Jul. 28, 2005.
"Watermelon Production and Consumption Demographics."
"Watermelon History." National Watermelon Promotion Board website. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.
Wolford, Ron and Banks, Drusilla. "Watch Your Garden Grow: Watermelon." University of Illinois Extension. Retrieved Jul. 17, 2005.

Pear

2009-02-15T10:27:00.000-08:00

Pear

A pear is an edible pomaceous fruit. The pear is classified within Maloideae, a subfamily within Rosaceae. The apple (Malus ×domestica) which it resembles in floral structure, is also a member of this subfamily. The English word pear is probably from Common West Germanic *pera, probably a loanword of Vulgar Latin pira, the plural of pirum, akin to Greek api(r)os, which is likely of Semitic origin. The place name Perry can indicate the historical presence of pear trees. The term "pyriform" is sometimes used to describe something which is "pear-shaped". History The cultivation of the pear in cool temperate climates extends to the remotest antiquity. Many traces of it have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings. The word "pear" or its equivalent occurs in all the Celtic languages, while in Slavonic and other dialects different appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found—a diversity and multiplicity of nomenclature which led Alphonse de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atlantic. Pears grow in the sublime orchard of Alcinous, in Odyssey vii: "Therein grow trees, tall and luxuriant, pears and pomegranates and apple-trees with their bright fruit, and sweet figs, and luxuriant olives. Of these the fruit perishes not nor fails in winter or in summer, but lasts throughout the year." The pear was cultivated also by the Romans, who did not eat them raw: Pliny's Natural History recommended stewing them with honey and noted three dozen varieties. The Roman cookbook attributed to Apicius, De re coquinaria, has a recipe for a spiced stewed-pear patina, or soufflé (IV.2.35). A certain race of pears, with white down on the under surface of their leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of perry (see also cider). Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their early ripening and apple-like fruit, may be referred to P. cordata, a species found wild in western France, and in Devonshire and Cornwall. Pears have been cultivated in China for approximately 3000 years. The genus is thought to have originated in present-day western China in the foothills of the Tian Shan, a mountain range of Central Asia, and to have spread to the north and south along mountain chains, evolving into a diverse group of over 20 widely recognized primary species. The enormous number of varieties of the cultivated European pear (Pyrus communis subsp. communis), are without doubt derived from one or two wild subspecies (P. communis subsp. pyraster and P. communis subsp. caucasica), widely distributed throughout Europe, and sometimes forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. In England, where an ancient pear tree gave its name to Pirio (Perry Barr, a district of Birmingham) in Domesday, the pear is sometimes considered wild; there is always the doubt that it may not really be so, but the produce of some seed of a cultivated tree deposited by birds or otherwise, which has germinated as a wild-form spine-bearing tree. Court accounts of Henry III of England record pears shipped from Rochelle and presented to the King by the Sheriffs of London. The French names of pears grown in English medieval gardens suggests that their reputation, at the least, was French; a favored variety in the accounts was named for Saint Rule or Regul', bishop of Senlis Asian species with medium to large edible fruit include P. pyrifolia, P. ussuriensis, P. ×bretschneideri, P. ×sinkiangensis, and P. pashia. Other small-fruited species are frequently used as rootstocks for the cultivated species. Botany Pears are native to coastal and mildly temperate regions of the Old World, from western Europe and north Africa east right across Asia. They are medium sized trees, reaching 10–17 m tall, often with a tall, narrow crown; a few species are shrubby. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, 2–12 cm long, glossy green on some species, densely silvery-hairy in some others; leaf shape varies from broad oval to narrow lanceolate. Most pears are deciduous, but one or two species in southeast Asia are evergreen. Most are cold-hardy, withstanding temperatures between −25 °C and −40 °C in winter, except for the evergreen species, which only tolerate temperatures down to about −15 °C. The flowers are white, rarely tinted yellow or pink, 2–4 cm diameter, and have five petals.Like that of the related apple, the pear fruit is a pome, in most wild species 1–4 cm diameter, but in some cultivated forms up to 18 cm long and 8 cm broad; the shape varies in most species from oblate or globose, to the classic pyriform 'pear-shape' of the European Pear with an elongated basal portion and a bulbous end. The fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the true fruit: five cartilaginous carpels, known colloquially as the "core". From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five petals, and the very numerous stamens. The pear is very similar to the apple in cultivation, propagation and pollination. Pears and apples cannot always be distinguished by the form of the fruit; some pears look very much like some apples. One major difference is that pears have "grit" - clusters of lignified cells. Pear trees and apple trees do have several visible differences. The pear and the apple are also related to the quince. There are about 30 primary species, major subspecies, and naturally occurring interspecific hybrids of pears. Cultivation The pear may be readily raised by sowing the pips of ordinary cultivated or of wilding kinds, these forming what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer varieties are grafted for increase. For new varieties the flowers can be cross-bred to preserve or combine desirable traits. The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots more than one year old.Summer and autumn pears are gathered before they are fully ripe, while they are still green, but snap off when lifted. If left to ripen and turn yellow on the tree, the sugars will turn to starch crystals and the pear will have a gritty texture inside. In the case of the 'Passe Crassane', long the favored winter pear in France, the crop should be gathered at three different times, the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe. The first gathering will come into eating latest, and thus the season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged Health benefits Pears are rich in Vitamin A, Vitamin C, E1, copper and potassium. Pears are the least allergenic of all fruits. Because of this, it is sometimes used as the first juice introduced to infants.Along with lamb and soya formula, pears form part of the strictest exclusion diet for allergy sufferers. Pears can be useful in treating inflammation of mucous membranes, colitis, chronic gallbladder disorders, arthritis, and gout. Pears can also be beneficial in lowering high blood pressure, controlling blood cholesterol levels, and increasing urine acidity. They are good for the lungs and the stomach. Most of the fiber is insoluble, making pears a good laxative. The gritty fiber content may cut down on the number of cancerous colon polyps.Most of the vitamin C, as well as the dietary fiber, are contained within the skin of the fruit. References

USA Pears—descriptions of pear cultivars from a U.S. advocacy group.
University of Georgia Pear Page—History of cultivation and commerce.
Wild Pear, Pyrus pyraster Diagnostic photos, Morton Arboretum specimens

Peach

2009-02-15T10:17:00.000-08:00

Peach The peach (Prunus persica) is known as a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit also called a peach. It is a deciduous tree growing to 5–10 m tall, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It is classified with the almond in the subgenus Amygdalus within the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell. The leaves are lanceolate, 7–15 cm long (3-6 in), 2–3 cm broad, pinnately veined. The flowers are produced in early spring before the leaves; they are solitary or paired, 2.5–3 cm diameter, pink, with five petals. The fruit is a drupe, with a single large seed encased in what appears to be wood, but isn't (called the "stone" or "pit"), yellow or whitish flesh, a delicate aroma, and a skin that is either velvety (peaches) or smooth (nectarines) in different cultivars. The flesh is very delicate and easily bruised in some cultivars, but is fairly firm in some commercial cultivars, especially when green. The seed is red-brown, oval shaped and approximately 1.3-2 cm long. Peaches, along with cherries, plums and apricots, are stone fruits (drupes). The tree is small, and up to 15 ft tall. The scientific name persica, along with the word "peach" itself and its cognates in many European languages, derives from an early European belief that peaches were native to Persia (now Iran). The modern botanical consensus is that they originate in China, and were introduced to Persia and the Mediterranean region along the Silk Road before Christian times. Cultivated peaches are divided into clingstones and freestones, depending on whether the flesh sticks to the stone or not; both can have either white or yellow flesh. Peaches with white flesh typically are very sweet with little acidity, while yellow-fleshed peaches typically have an acidic tang coupled with sweetness, though this also varies greatly. Both colours often have some red on their skin. Low-acid white-fleshed peaches are the most popular kinds in China, Japan, and neighbouring Asian countries, while Europeans and North Americans have historically favoured the acidic, yellow-fleshed kinds, though some prefer the other fruits. History of Peach Although its botanical name Prunus persica suggests the peach is native to Persia, it actually originated in China where it has been cultivated since the early days of Chinese culture. Peaches were mentioned in Chinese writings as far back as the tenth century BC and were a favored fruit of emperors. Its English name derives from the Latin plural of persicum malum, meaning Persian apple. In Middle English, it melded into peche, much closer to what we call it today. The Persians brought the peach from China and passed it on to the Romans. The peach was brought to America by Spanish explorers in the sixteenth century and eventually made it to England and France in the seventeenth century, where it was a prized albeit rare treat. The Peach is a ripe fruit most of the time and has fuzzy skin. A horticultist by the name of George Minifie supposedly brought the first peaches from England to the USA in the early seventeenth century, planting them at his Estate of Buckland in Virginia. Various American Indian tribes are credited with spreading the peach tree across the United States, taking seeds along with them and planting as they roved the country. Although Thomas Jefferson had peach trees at Monticello, United States farmers did not begin commercial production until the nineteenth century in Maryland, Delaware, Georgia and finally Virginia. California grows 65% of peaches grown for commercial production in the United States, but the northern states, Colorado, Michigan, and Washington also grow a significant amount. Today, peaches are the second largest commercial fruit crop in the States, second only to apples. Italy, China and Greece are major producers of peaches outside of the United States. Cultivation Peach trees grow very well in a fairly limited range, since they have a chilling requirement that subtropical areas cannot satisfy, and they are not very cold-hardy. The trees themselves can usually tolerate temperatures to around −26 °C to −30 °C, although the following season's flower buds are usually killed at these temperatures, leading to no crop that summer. Flower bud kill begins to occur at temperatures between −15 °C and −25 °C depending on the cultivar (some are more cold-tolerant than others) and the timing of the cold, with the buds becoming less cold tolerant in late winter. Certain cultivars are more tender and others can tolerate a few degrees colder. In addition, a lot of summer heat is required to mature the crop, with mean temperatures of the hottest month between 20 °C and 30 °C. Another problematic issue in many peach-growing areas is spring frost. The trees tend to flower fairly early in spring. The flowers can often be damaged or killed by freezes; typically, if temperatures drop below about −4 °C, most flowers will be killed. However, if the flowers are not fully open, they can tolerate a couple of degrees colder. Important historical peach-producing areas are China, Iran, France, and the Mediterranean countries like Italy, Spain and Greece. More recently, the United States (where the three largest producing states are California, South Carolina, and Georgia), Canada (British Columbia), and Australia (the Riverland region) have also become important; peach growing in the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario, Canada, was formerly intensive but ended in 2008 when the last fruit cannery in Canada was closed by the proprietors. Oceanic climate areas like the Pacific Northwest and coastline of North Western Europe are generally not satisfactory for peach-growing due to inadequate summer heat, though they are sometimes grown trained against south-facing walls to catch extra heat from the sun. Trees grown in a sheltered and south-facing position in the southeast of England are capable of producing both flowers and a large crop of fruit. Nectarines The nectarine is a cultivar group of peach that has a smooth, fuzzless skin. Though fuzzy peaches and nectarines are commercially regarded as different fruits, with nectarines often erroneously believed to be a crossbreed between peaches and plums, or a "peach with a plum skin", they belong to the same species as peaches. Several genetic studies have concluded in fact that nectarines are created due to a recessive gene, whereas a fuzzy peach skin is dominant.Nectarines have arisen many times from peach trees, often as bud sports. As with peaches, nectarines can be white or yellow, and clingstone or freestone. On average, nectarines are slightly smaller and sweeter than peaches, but with much overlap. The lack of skin fuzz can make nectarine skins appear more reddish than those of peaches, contributing to the fruit's plum-like appearance. The lack of down on nectarines' skin also means their skin is more easily bruised than peaches. The history of the nectarine is unclear; the first recorded mention in English is from 1616, but they had probably been grown much earlier within the native range of the Peach in central and eastern Asia. Disease The trees are prone to a disease called leaf curl, which usually does not directly affect the fruit but does reduce the crop yield by partially defoliating the tree. The fruit is very susceptible to brown rot. Plantation The development sequence of a nectarine over a 7½ month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer (see image page for further information) Most peach trees sold by nurseries are named cultivars grafted onto a suitable rootstock. It is also possible to grow a tree from either a peach or nectarine seed, but the fruit quality of the resulting tree will be very unpredictable. Peaches should be located in full sun, and with good air flow. This allows cold air to flow away on frosty nights and keeps the area cool in summer. Peaches are best planted in early winter, as this allows time for the roots to establish and be able to sustain the new spring growth. When planting in rows, plant north-south. For optimum growth, peach trees require a constant supply of water. This should be increased shortly before the harvest. The best tasting fruit is produced when the peach is watered throughout the season. Drip irrigation is ideal, at least one dripper per tree. Although it is better to use multiple drippers around the tree, this is not necessary. A quarter of the root being watered is sufficient. Peaches have a high nutrient requirement, needing more nitrogen than most other fruit trees. An NPK fertiliser can be applied regularly, and an additional mulch of poultry manure in autumn soon after the harvest will benefit the tree. If the leaves of the peach are yellow or small, the tree needs more nitrogen. Blood meal and bone meal, 3–5 kg per mature tree, or calcium ammonium nitrate, 0.5–1 kg, are suitable fertilisers. This also applies if the tree is putting forth little growth. If the full amount of peaches is left, they will be under-sized and lacking in sugar and flavour. In dry conditions, extra watering is important. The fruit should be thinned when they have reached 2 cm in diameter, usually about 2 months after flowering. Fresh fruit are best consumed on the day of picking, and do not keep well. They are best eaten when the fruit is slightly soft, having aroma, and heated by the sun. Storage Hard fruit can be softened at home at room temperature, though it may not get any sweeter. The process is facilitated by ethylene, similar to the ripening of bananas. Storage in a paper bag concentrates this gas and hastens the process.When the fruit is soft, it can be stored in the refrigerator for a few days to slow further changes. In the August 13, 2004 edition of the Journal of Experimental Botany, researchers found that peaches stored around 40 °F (4 °C) became mealy and discolored in the form of lemon juice, is added to delay the process, and the flavors are complementary. Peaches also can be frozen, and can be blanched to inhibit enzymatic changes in texture. Peaches often are canned, both commercially and at home; added sugars and acids reduce the retort or pressure cooking time which reduces excessive softening. Peaches in China Tradition Pan Tao, the Chinese flat peach. Also called Paraguaya (Paraguayan). A Chinese Song Dynasty painting of a bird and peach blossom, by Song Emperor Huizong, 11th century. Peaches are known in China, Japan, Korea, Laos, and Vietnam not only as a popular fruit but for the many folktales and traditions associated with it. Momotaro, one of Japan's most noble and semi-historical heroes, was born from within an enormous peach floating down a stream. Momotaro or "Peach Boy" went on to fight evil oni and face many adventures. Peach flowers are admired by the Japanese but not as much as the sakura (cherry). In China, the peach was said to be consumed by the immortals due to its mystic virtue of conferring longevity on all who ate them. The divinity Yu Huang, also called the Jade Emperor, and his mother called Xi Wangmu also known as Queen Mother of the West, ensured the gods' everlasting existence by feeding them the peaches of immortality. The immortals residing in the palace of Xi Wangmu were said to celebrate an extravagant banquet called the Pantao Hui or "The Feast of Peaches". The immortals waited six thousand years before gathering for this magnificent feast; the peach tree put forth leaves once every thousand years and it required another three thousand years for the fruit to ripen. Ivory statues depicting Xi Wangmu's attendants often held three peaches. The peach often plays an important part in Chinese tradition and is symbolic of long life. One example is in the peach-gathering story of Zhang Daoling, who many say is the true founder of Taoism. Elder Zhang Guo, one of the Chinese Eight Immortals, is often depicted carrying a Peach of Immortality. The peach blossoms are highly prized in Chinese culture. It was in an orchard of flowering peach trees that Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei took an oath of brotherhood in the opening chapter of the classic Chinese novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Due to its delicious taste and soft texture, in ancient China "peach" was also a slang word for "young bride", and it has remained in many cultures as a way to define young women or a general state of goodness (as in English, with peach or peachy keen).[citation needed] A Vietnamese mythic history states that, in the spring of the year 1789, after marching to Ngọc Hồi and then winning a great victory against invaders from the Qing Dynasty of China, the King Quang Trung ordered a messenger to gallop to Phú Xuân citadel (Huế nowadays) and deliver a flowering peach branch to the Princess Ngọc Hân. This took place on the 5th day of the first lunar month, 2 days before the predicted end of the battle. The branch of peach flowers that was sent from the North to the Center of Vietnam was not only a message of victory from the King to his wife, but also the start of a new spring of peace and happiness for all the Vietnamese people. In addition to that, since the land of Nhật Tân had freely given that very branch of peach flowers to the King, it became the loyal garden of his dynasty. A peach tree is also the context in which Kim Trọng and Thuý Kiều fell in love in The Tale of Kieu. And in Vietnam, the blossoming peach flower is the signal of spring. Finally, peach bonsai trees are used as decoration during Vietnamese New Year — Tết in Northern Vietnam. Nutririon A medium peach (75g), has 30 Cal, 7g of carbohydrate (6g sugars and 1g fiber), 1g of protein, 140mg of potassium, and 8% of the daily value (DV) for vitamin C. References

Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
National Center for Home Food Preservation — Freezing Peaches
Prunus persica images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
California commercial production terminology and standards

Kiwifruit

2009-02-15T10:12:00.000-08:00

Kiwifruit The kiwifruit (or kiwi) is the edible berry of a cultivar group of the woody vine Actinidia deliciosa and hybrids between this and other species in the genus Actinidia. The Actinidia is native to China. The most common cultivars of kiwifruit are oval, about the size of a large hen's egg (5–8 cm / 2–3 in long and 4.5–5.5 cm / 1¾–2 in diameter). It has a fibrous, dull brown-green skin and bright green or golden flesh with rows of small, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture and a unique flavour, and today is a commercial crop in several countries. Originally known as the Chinese Gooseberry, the fruit was renamed for export marketing reasons in the 1950s; briefly to melonette, and then by New Zealand exporters to kiwifruit. This latter name comes from the kiwi — a flightless bird and New Zealand's national symbol, and also a colloquial name for the New Zealand people. To avoid confusion with the bird and the people, the fruit is always called "kiwifruit" in New Zealand and Australia. However, in other countries it is almost always just called "kiwi". History Actinidia deliciosa is native to southern China, where it is declared as the "National Fruit" of the People's Republic of China. Other species of Actinidia are also found in India and Japan and north into southeastern Siberia. Cultivation spread from China in the early 20th century, when seeds were introduced to New Zealand by Mary Isabel Fraser, the principal of Wanganui Girls' College, who had been visiting mission schools in Yichang, China.[3] The seeds were planted in 1906 by a Wanganui nurseryman, Alexander Allison, with the vines first fruiting in 1910. The familiar cultivar Actinidia deliciosa 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale, New Zealand around 1924. It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s. Italy is now the leading producer of kiwifruit in the world, followed by China, New Zealand, Chile, France, Greece, Japan and the United States. In China, kiwifruit was traditionally collected from the wild, but until recently China was not a major producing country. In China, it is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River. It is also grown in other areas of China, including Sichuan. The hairs on the skin of the kiwifruit are used in the Far East as a treatment for baldness. Western medicine has not confirmed this claim, and unlike some functional foods, the United States Food and Drug Administration has not granted this belief the status of "scientific agreement". Cultivars Almost all kiwifruit in commerce belong to a few cultivars of Actinidia deliciosa: 'Hayward', 'Chico', and 'Saanichton 12'. The fruit of these cultivars are practically indistinguishable from each other and match the description of a standard kiwifruit given at the head of this article.Gold Kiwifruit or "Hinabelle", with yellow flesh and a sweeter, less acidic flavour resembling a tropical fruit salad, is a new Cultivar Group produced by the New Zealand Crown Research Institute, HortResearch and marketed worldwide in increasing volumes. Some wild vines in India have yellow fruit but are small and not commercially viable. Seeds from these plants were imported to New Zealand in 1987 and the company took 11 years to develop the new fruit through cross-pollination and grafting with green kiwifruit vines. Gold Kiwifruit have a smooth, bronze skin, a pointed cap at one end and distinctive golden yellow flesh with a less tart and more tropical flavour than green kiwifruit. It has a higher market price than green kiwifruit. It is less hairy than the green cultivars, so can be eaten whole after rubbing off the thin, fluffy coat. Nutrition Kiwifruit is a rich source of vitamin C, 1.5 times the DRI scale in the US. Its potassium content by weight is slightly less than that of a banana. It also contains vitamins A and E. The skin is a good source of flavonoid antioxidants. The kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid. Usually a medium size kiwifruit contains about 46 calories, 0.3 g fats, 1 g proteins, 11 g carbohydrates, 75 mg vitamins and 2.6 g dietary fiber. Kiwifruit is often reported to have mild laxative effects, possibly because of the high level of dietary fiber. Raw kiwifruit is also rich in the protein-dissolving enzyme actinidin, (in the same family of thiol proteases as papain), which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer but can be an allergen for some individuals. Specifically, people allergic to latex, papayas or pineapples are likely to be allergic to kiwifruit also. Reactions include sweating, tingling and sore mouth; swelling of the lips, tongue and face; rash; vomiting and abdominal pain; and, in the most severe cases, breathing difficulties, wheezing and collapse. The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with the most common severe symptom being wheezing. Severe symptoms are most likely to occur in young children. This enzyme makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products which are not going to be served within hours, because it soon begins to digest milk proteins. This applies to gelatin-based desserts as well, as the actinidin will dissolve the collagen proteins in gelatin very quickly, either liquifying the dessert, or preventing it from solidifying. However, the U.S. Department of Agriculture suggests that cooking the fruit for a few minutes before adding it to the gelatin will overcome this effect.[9] Sliced kiwifruit has long been regularly used as a garnish atop whipped cream New Zealand's national dessert, the pavlova. Kiwifruit also serves as a natural blood thinner. A recent study performed at the University of Oslo in Norway reveals that--similar to popular mainstream aspirin therapy-consuming two to three kiwifruit daily for 28 days significantly thins the blood, reducing the risk of clots, and lowers fat in the blood that can cause blockages. Cultivation Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where Actinidia deliciosa is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes. Kiwifruit is commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring. Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on one-year-old and older canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. Kiwifruit plants are normally dioecious, meaning that individual plants are male or female. Only female plants bear fruit, and only when pollenized by a male plant. One male pollenizer is required for each three to eight female vines. An exception is the cultivar 'Issai', a hybrid (Actinidia arguta x polygama) from Japan, which produces perfect flowers and can self-pollinate; unfortunately it lacks vigour, is less hardy than most A. arguta forms and is not a large producer. Kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate because the flowers are not very attractive to bees. Some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. But generally the most successful approach is saturation pollination, where the bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance. References

How to grow kiwifruit vines and nutritional data
Purdue University NewCROP
Kiwifruits in Australia
Photos of kiwifruit and alfalfa pollination in California

Orange

2009-01-22T12:59:00.000-08:00

Orange An orange—specifically, the sweet orange—is the citrus Citrus sinensis (syn. Citrus aurantium L. var. dulcis L., or Citrus aurantium Risso) and its fruit. The orange is a hybrid of ancient cultivated origin, possibly between pomelo (Citrus maxima) and tangerine (Citrus reticulata). It is a small flowering tree growing to about 10 m tall with evergreen leaves, which are arranged alternately, of ovate shape with crenulate margins and 4–10 cm long. The orange fruit is a hesperidium, a type of berry. Oranges originated in Southeast Asia. The fruit of Citrus sinensis is called sweet orange to distinguish it from Citrus aurantium, the bitter orange. In a number of languages, it is known as a "Chinese apple" (e.g. Dutch Sinaasappel, "China's apple", or "Apfelsine" in German). The name is thought to ultimately derive from the Dravidian word for the orange tree, with its final form developing after passing through numerous intermediate language. Varieties Persian orange The Persian orange, grown widely in southern Europe after its introduction to Italy in the 11th century, was bitter. Sweet oranges brought to Europe in the 15th century from India by Portuguese traders, quickly displaced the bitter, and are now the most common variety of orange cultivated. The sweet orange will grow to different sizes and colours according to local conditions, most commonly with ten carpels, or segments, inside. Some South East Indo-European tongues name orange after Portugal, which was formerly the main source of imports of sweet oranges. Examples are Bulgarian portokal [портокал], Greek portokali [πορτοκάλι], Persian porteghal [پرتقال], and Romanian portocală. Also in South Italian dialects (Neapolitan), orange is named portogallo or purtualle, literally "the Portuguese ones". Related names can also be found in other languages: Turkish Portakal, Arabic al-burtuqal [البرتقال], Amharic birtukan, and Georgian phortokhali [ფორთოხალი]. Portuguese, Spanish, Arab, and Dutch sailors planted citrus trees along trade routes to prevent scurvy. On his second voyage in 1493, Christopher Columbus brought the seeds of oranges, lemons and citrons to Haiti and the Caribbean. They were introduced in Florida (along with lemons) in 1513 by Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon, and were introduced to Hawaii in 1792. Navel orange A peeled sectioned navel orange. The underdeveloped twin is located on the bottom right. A single mutation in 1820 in an orchard of sweet oranges planted at a monastery in Brazil yielded the navel orange, also known as the Washington, Riverside, or Bahie navel. The mutation causes navel oranges to develop a second orange at the base of the original fruit, opposite the stem. The second orange develops as a conjoined twin in a set of smaller segments embedded within the peel of the larger orange. From the outside, the smaller, undeveloped twin leaves a formation at the bottom of the fruit that looks similar to the human navel. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless and, therefore, sterile, the only means available to cultivate more of this new variety is to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus tree. Two such cuttings of the original tree were transplanted to Riverside, California in 1870, which eventually led to worldwide popularity. Today, navel oranges continue to be produced via cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so not only do the navel oranges of today have exactly the same genetic makeup as the original tree, and are therefore clones; in a sense, all navel oranges can be considered to be the fruit of that single over-a-century-old tree.On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties. Valencia orange The Valencia or Murcia orange is one of the sweet oranges used for juice extraction. It is a late-season fruit, and therefore a popular variety when the navel oranges are out of season. For this reason, the orange was chosen to be the official mascot of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Spain. The mascot was called "Naranjito" ("little orange"), and wore the colours of the Spanish soccer team uniform. Blood orange The blood orange has streaks of red in the fruit, and the juice is often a dark burgundy colour. The fruit has found a niche as an interesting ingredient variation on traditional Seville marmalade, with its striking red streaks and distinct flavour. The scarlet navel is a variety with the same diploid mutation as the navel orange. Products made from oranges include: * Orange juice is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the USA. It is made by squeezing the fruit on a special instrument called a "juicer" or a "squeezer." The juice is collected in a small tray underneath. This is mainly done in the home, and in industry is done on a much larger scale. * Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered orange juice. * Sweet orange oil is a by-product of the juice industry produced by pressing the peel. It is used as a flavouring of food and drink and for its fragrance in perfume and aromatherapy. Sweet orange oil consists of about 90% d-Limonene, a solvent used in various household chemicals, such as to condition wooden furniture, and along with other citrus oils in grease removal and as a hand-cleansing agent. It is an efficient cleaning agent which is promoted as being environmentally friendly and preferable to petroleum distillates. However, d-Limonene is classified as toxic or very toxic in several countries[citation needed]. Its smell is considered more pleasant by some than those of other cleaning agents. Although once thought to cause renal cancer in rats, limonene now is known as a significant chemopreventive agent with potential value as a dietary anti-cancer tool in humans. There is no evidence for carcinogenicity or genotoxicity in humans. The IARC classifies d-limonene under Class 3: not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.[citation needed] * The orange blossom, which is the state flower of Florida, is traditionally associated with good fortune, and was popular in bridal bouquets and head wreaths for weddings for some time. The petals of orange blossom can also be made into a delicately citrus-scented version of rosewater. Orange blossom water (aka orange flower water) is a common part of both French and Middle Eastern cuisines, used most often as an ingredient in desserts. The orange blossom gives its touristic nickname to the Costa del Azahar ("Orange-blossom coast"), the Castellon seaboard. * In Spain, fallen blossoms are dried and then used to make tea. * In the United States, orange flower water is used to make orange blossom scones. * Orange blossom honey, or actually citrus honey, is produced by putting beehives in the citrus groves during bloom, which also pollinates seeded citrus varieties. Orange blossom honey is highly prized, and tastes much like orange. * Marmalade, a conserve usually made with Seville oranges. All parts of the orange are used to make marmalade: the pith and pips are separated, and typically placed in a muslin bag where they are boiled in the juice (and sliced peel) to extract their pectin, aiding the setting process. * Orange peel is used by gardeners as a slug repellent. * Orange leaves can be boiled to make tea.

Apple

2009-01-22T12:48:00.000-08:00

Apple Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Rosales Family: Rosaceae Subfamily: Maloideae Tribe: Maleae Genus: Malus The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family Rosaceae. It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits. The tree is small and deciduous, reaching 3 to 12 metres (9.8 to 39 ft) tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown. The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals 5 to 12 cm long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) broad on a 2 to 5 centimetres (0.79 to 2.0 in) petiole with an acute tip, serrated margin and a slightly downy underside. Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves. The flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn, and is typically 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) diameter. The center of the fruit contains five carpels arranged in a five-point star, each carpel containing one to three seeds. The tree originated from Central Asia, where its wild ancestor is still found today. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples resulting in range of desired characteristics. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. China produced about 35% of this total. The United States is the second leading producer, with more than 7.5% of the world production. Turkey, France, Italy and Iran are among the leading apple exporters. Botanical information The wild ancestor of Malus domestica is Malus sieversii. It has no common name in English, but is known in Kazakhstan, where it is native, as alma; in fact, the region where it is thought to originate is called Almaty, or "reach of the apples". This tree is still found wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China. Apple cut horizontally, showing seeds For many years, there was a debate about whether M. domestica evolved from chance hybridization among various wild species. Recent DNA analysis by Barrie Juniper, Emeritus Fellow in the Department of Plant Sciences at Oxford University and others, has indicated, however, that the hybridization theory is probably false. Instead, it appears that a single species still growing in the Ili Valley, on the northern slopes of the Tien Shan mountains at the border of Northwest China and Kazakhstan, is the progenitor of the apples eaten today. Leaves taken from trees in this area were analyzed for DNA composition, which showed them all to belong to the species M. sieversii, with some genetic sequences common to M. domestica. Other species that were previously thought to have made contributions to the genome of the domestic apples are Malus baccata and Malus sylvestris, but there is no hard evidence for this in older apple cultivars. These and other Malus species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in climates unsuitable for M. domestica, mainly for increased cold tolerance. Apple breeding Apple blossom from an old Ayrshire variety Like most perennial fruits, apples ordinarily propagate asexually by grafting. Seedling apples are an example of "Extreme heterozygotes", in that rather than inheriting DNA from their parents to create a new apple with those characteristics, they are instead different from their parents, sometimes radically. Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars. Breeders can produce more rigid apples through crossing. For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important introductions have included 'Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'. Apples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they provide crops twice per year because of constant temperate conditions in a whole year.[24] Pollination Apple tree in flower Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide pollinators to carry the pollen. Honeybee hives are most commonly used. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Bumble bee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators. There are four to seven pollination groups in apples depending on climate: * Group A – Early flowering, May 1 to 3 in England (Gravenstein, Red Astrachan) * Group B – May 4 to 7 (Idared, McIntosh) * Group C – Mid-season flowering, May 8 to 11 (Granny Smith, Cox's Orange Pippin) * Group D – Mid/Late season flowering, May 12 to 15 (Golden Delicious, Calville blanc d'hiver) * Group E – Late flowering, May 16 to 18 (Braeburn, Reinette d'Orléans) * Group F – May 19 to 23 (Suntan) * Group H – May 24 to 28 (Court-Pendu Gris) (also called Court-Pendu plat) One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A, or A with B, but not A with C or D).[25] Maturation and harvest Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear much more fruit, but makes harvesting very difficult. Mature trees typically bear 40–200 kilograms (88–440 lb) of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10–80 kilograms (22–180 lb) of fruit per year.[22] Storage Commercially, apples can be stored for some months in controlled-atmosphere chambers to delay ethylene-induced onset of ripening. Ripening begins when the fruit is removed.[26] For home storage, most varieties of apple can be stored for approximately two weeks, when kept at the coolest part of the refrigerator (i.e. below 5°C). Some types of apple, including the Granny Smith and Fuji, have an even longer shelf life. Pests and diseases Leaves with significant insect damage Main article: List of apple diseases The trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests. Many commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of organic methods. These use a less aggressive and direct methods of conventional farming. Instead of spraying potent chemicals, often shown to be potentially dangerous and maleficent to the tree in the long run, organic methods include encouraging or discouraging certain cycles and pests. To control a specific pest, organic growers might encourage the prosperity of its natural predator instead of outright killing it, and with it the natural biochemistry around the tree. Organic apples generally have the same or greater taste than conventionally grown apples, with reduced cosmetic appearances. A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant; three of the more common diseases/pests are mildew, aphids and apple scab. * Mildew: which is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the leaves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring. The flowers will turn a creamy yellow colour and will not develop correctly. This can be treated in a manner not dissimilar from treating Botrytis; eliminating the conditions which caused the disease in the first place and burning the infected plants are among the recommended actions to take. Feeding aphids * Aphids: There are five species of aphids commonly found on apples: apple grain aphid, rosy apple aphid, apple aphid, spirea aphid and the woolly apple aphid. The aphid species can be identified by their colour, the time of year when they are present and by differences in the cornicles, which are small paired projections from the rear of aphids. Aphids feed on foliage using needlelike mouthparts to suck out plant juices. When present in high numbers, certain species may reduce tree growth and vigor. * Apple scab: Symptoms of Scab are olive-green or brown blotches on the leaves.] The blotches turn more brown as time progresses. Then brown scabs on the fruit (see apple picture on the left). The diseased leaves will fall early and the fruit will become increasingly covered in scabs - eventually the fruit skin will crack. Although there are chemicals to treat Scab, their use might not be encouraged as they are quite often systematic, which means they are absorbed by the tree, and spread throughout the fruit. Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and Gymnosporangium rust, and black spot, two fungal diseases. Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter.

Pomegranate

2009-01-22T12:35:00.000-08:00

POMEGRANATE Punica granatum L. Punicaceae Common Names: Pomegranate, Granada (Spanish), Grenade (French). Related Species: Punica proto-punica. Origin: The pomegranate is native from Iran to the Himalayas in northern India and was cultivated and naturalized over the whole Mediterranean region since ancient times. It is widely cultivated throughout India and the drier parts of southeast Asia, Malaya, the East Indies and tropical Africa. The tree was introduced into California by Spanish settlers in 1769. In this country it is grown for its fruits mainly in the drier parts of California and Arizona. Adaptation: Pomegranates prefer a semi-arid mild-temperate to subtropical climate and are naturally adapted to regions with cool winters and hot summers. A humid climate adversely affects the formation of fruit. The tree can be severely injured by temperatures below 12° F. In the U. S. pomegranates can be grown outside as far north as southern Utah and Washington, D.C. but seldom set fruit in these areas. The tree adapts well to container culture and will sometimes fruit in a greenhouse. DESCRIPTION Growth Habits: The pomegranate is a neat, rounded shrub or small tree that can grow to 20 or 30 ft., but more typically to 12 to 16 ft. in height. Dwarf varieties are also known. It is usually deciduous, but in certain areas the leaves will persist on the tree. The trunk is covered by a red-brown bark which later becomes gray. The branches are stiff, angular and often spiny. There is a strong tendency to sucker from the base. Pomegranates are also long-lived. There are specimens in Europe that are known to be over 200 years of age. The vigor of a pomegranate declines after about 15 years, however. Foliage: The pomegranate has glossy, leathery leaves that are narrow and lance-shaped. Flowers: The attractive scarlet, white or variegated flowers are over an inch across and have 5 to 8 crumpled petals and a red, fleshy, tubular calyx which persists on the fruit. The flowers may be solitary or grouped in twos and threes at the ends of the branches. The pomegranate is self-pollinated as well as cross-pollinated by insects. Cross-pollination increases the fruit set. Wind pollination is insignificant. Fruit: The nearly round, 2-1/2 to 5 in. wide fruit is crowned at the base by the prominent calyx. The tough, leathery skin or rind is typically yellow overlaid with light or deep pink or rich red. The interior is separated by membranous walls and white, spongy, bitter tissue into compartments packed with sacs filled with sweetly acid, juicy, red, pink or whitish pulp or aril. In each sac there is one angular, soft or hard seed. High temperatures are essential during the fruiting period to get the best flavor. The pomegranate may begin to bear in 1 year after planting out, but 2-1/2 to 3 years is more common. Under suitable conditions the fruit should mature some 5 to 7 months after bloom. CULTURE Location: Pomegranates should be placed in the sunniest, warmest part of the yard or orchard for the best fruit, although they will grow and flower in part shade. The attractive foliage, flowers and fruits of the pomegranate, as well as its smallish size make it a excellent landscaping plant. Soil: The pomegranate does best in well-drained ordinary soil, but also thrives on calcareous or acidic loam as well as rock strewn gravel. Irrigation: Once established, pomegranates can take considerable drought, but for good fruit production they must be irrigated. To establish new plants they should be watered every 2 to 4 weeks during the dry season. The plants are tolerant of moderately saline water and soil conditions. Fertilizing: In the West, the trees are given 2 to 4-ounce applications of ammonium sulfate or other nitrogen fertilizer the first two springs. After that very little fertilizer is needed, although the plants respond to an annual mulch of rotted manure or other compost. Pruning: Plants should be cut back when they are about 2 ft. high. From this point allow 4 or 5 shoots to develop, which should be evenly distributed around the stem to keep the plant well balanced. These should start about 1 ft. from the ground, giving a short but well-defined trunk. Any shoots which appear above or below should be removed as should any suckers. Since the fruits are borne only at the tips of new growth, it is recommended that for the first 3 years the branches be judiciously shortened annually to encourage the maximum number of new shoots on all sides, prevent straggly development and achieve a strong well framed plant. After the 3rd year, only suckers and dead branches are removed. Propagation: The pomegranate can be raised from seed but may not come true. Cuttings root easily and plants from them bear fruit after about 3 years. Twelve to 20 inches long cuttings should be taken in winter from mature, one-year old wood. The leaves should be removed and the cuttings treated with rooting hormone and inserted about two-thirds their length into the soil or into some other warm rooting medium. Plants can also be air-layered but grafting is seldom successful. Pests and Diseases: Pomegranates are relatively free of most pests and diseases. Minor problems are leaf and fruit spot and foliar damage by white flies, thrips, mealybugs and scale insects. The roots are seldom bothered by gophers but deer will browse on the foliage. Harvest: The fruits are ripe when they have developed a distinctive color and make a metallic sound when tapped. The fruits must be picked before over maturity when they tend to crack open, particularly when rained on. The pomegranate is equal to the apple in having a long storage life. It is best maintained at a temperature of 32° to 41° F. and can be kept for a period of 7 months within this temperature range and at 80 to 85% relative humidity without shrinking or spoiling. The fruits improve in storage, becoming juicier and more flavorful. The fruit can be eaten out of hand by deeply scoring several times vertically and then breaking it apart. The clusters of juice sacs are then lifted out and eaten. The sacs also make an attractive garnish when sprinkled on various dishes. Pomegranate fruits are most often consumed as juice and can be juiced is several ways. The sacs can be removed and put through a basket press or the juice can be extracted by reaming the halved fruits on an ordinary orange juice squeezer. Another approach starts with warming the fruit slightly and rolling it between the hands to soften the interior. A hole is then cut in the stem end which is placed on a glass to let the juice run out, squeezing the fruit from time to time to get all the juice. The juice can be used in a variety of of ways: as a fresh juice, to make jellies, sorbets or cold or hot sauces as well as to flavor cakes, baked apples, etc. Pomegranate syrup is sold commercially as grenadine. The juice can also be made into a wine. Commercial Potential: The primary commercial growing regions of the world are the Near East, India and surrounding countries and southern Europe. In California commercial cultivation is centered in the southern San Joaquin Valley. Consumer demand in this country is not great. More pomegranate fruits probably wind up as decorations in fruit bowls than are consumed. FURTHER READING * Butterfield, Harry M. A History of Subtropical Fruits and Nuts in California. University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station. 1963. * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. pp. 166-167. * Johns, Leslie and Violet Stevenson, Fruit for the Home and Garden. Angus and Robertson, 1985. pp. 215-218. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 352-355. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 375-383.

Olive

2009-01-22T12:34:00.000-08:00

OLIVE Olea europaea L. Oleaceae Common Name: Olive. Related Species: Wild Olive (Olea africana), Oleaster (O. europaea var. oleaster). Distant Affinity: American Olive (Osmanthus americana), Fragrant Olive (O. fragrans). Origin: The olive is native to the Mediterranean region, tropical and central Asia and various parts of Africa. The olive has a history almost as long as that of Western civilization, its development being one of civilized man's first accomplishments. At a site in Spain, carbon-dating has shown olive seed found there to be eight thousand years old. O. europaea may have been cultivated independently in two places, Crete and Syria. Archeological evidence suggest that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 B.C. From Crete and Syria olives spread to Greece, Rome and other parts of the Mediterranean area. Olives are also grown commercially in California, Australia and South Africa. There is some disagreement over when the trees first appeared in California. Some say they were introduced in 1769 when seeds brought from Mexico were planted. Others site the date 1785 when trees were brought in to make olive oil. Adaptation: The olive requires a long, hot growing season to properly ripen the fruit, no late spring frosts to kill the blossoms and sufficient winter chill to insure fruit set. Home grown olives generally fruit satisfactorily in the warmer coastal valleys of California. Virtually all U.S. commercial olive production is concentrated in California's Central Valley, with a small pocket of olive acreage outside Phoenix. The tree may be grown as an ornamental where winter temperatures do not drop below 12° F. Green fruit is damaged at about 28°, but ripe fruit will withstand somewhat lower temperatures. Hot, dry winds may be harmful during the period when the flowers are open and the young fruits are setting. The trees survive and fruit well even with considerable neglect. Olives can also be grown in a large container, and has even appeared in shows as a bonsai. DESCRIPTION Growth Habits: The olive is an evergreen tree growing to 50 ft. in height with a spread of about 30 ft. The tree can be kept to about 20 ft. with regular pruning. The graceful, billowing appearance of the olive tree can be rather attractive. In an all-green garden its grayish foliage serves as an interesting accent. The attractive, gnarled branching pattern is also quite distinctive. Olives are long-lived with a life expectancy of 500 years. The trees are also tenacious, easily sprouting back even when chopped to the ground. Foliage: The olive's feather-shaped leaves grow opposite one another. Their skin is rich in tannin, giving the mature leaf its gray-green appearance. The leaves are replaced every two or three years, leaf-fall usually occurring at the same time new growth appears in the spring. Flowers: The small, fragrant, cream-colored olive flowers are largely hidden by the evergreen leaves and grow on a long stem arising from the leaf axils. The olive produces two kinds of flowers: a perfect flower containing both male and female parts, and a staminate flower with stamens only. The flowers are largely wind pollinated with most olive varieties being self-pollinating, although fruit set is usually improved by cross pollination with other varieties. There are self-incompatible varieties that do not set fruit without other varieties nearby, and there are varieties that are incompatible with certain others. Incompatibility can also occur for environmental reasons such as high temperatures. Fruit: The olive fruit is a green drupe, becoming generally blackish-purple when fully ripe. A few varieties are green when ripe and some turn a shade of copper brown. The cultivars vary considerably in size, shape, oil-content and flavor. The shapes range from almost round to oval or elongated with pointed ends. Raw olives contain an alkaloid that makes them bitter and unpalatable. A few varieties are sweet enough to be eaten after sun drying. Thinning the crop will give larger fruit size. This should be done as soon as possible after fruit set. Thin until remaining fruit average about 2 or 3 per foot of twig. The trees reach bearing age in about 4 years. CULTURE Location: Plant olive trees in full sun and away from sidewalks to avoid stains from fallen ripe fruit. Non-fruiting trees are available which can be planted in areas where fruit may be a problem. Strong winds will "sculpt" the trees, but otherwise they are quite wind-tolerant. Soils: Olives will grow well on almost any well-drained soil up to pH 8.5 and are tolerant of mild saline conditions. Irrigation: Irrigation is a necessity in California with its dry summers. A monthly deep watering of home grown trees is normally adequate. Because of its small leaves, with their protective cuticle and slow transpiration, the olive tree survives even extended dry periods. Fertilization: Fertilizing olive trees with additional supplies of nitrogen has proved beneficial. In California farmers systematically apply fertilizers well ahead of the time flowers develop so the trees can absorb the nitrogen before fruit set. Many growers in Mediterranean countries apply organic fertilizers every other year. Pruning: Proper pruning is important for the olive. Pruning both regulates production and shapes the tree for easier harvest. The trees can withstand radical pruning, so it is relatively easy to keep them at a desired height. The problem of alternate bearing can also be avoided with careful pruning every year. It should be kept in mind that the olive never bears fruit in the same place twice, and usually bears on the previous year's growth. For a single trunk, prune suckers and any branches growing below the point where branching is desired. For the gnarled effect of several trunks, stake out basal suckers and lower branches at the desired angle. Prune flowering branches in early summer to prevent olives from forming. Olive trees can also be pruned to espaliers. Propagation: None of the cultivated varieties can be propagated by seed. Seed propagated trees revert to the original small-fruited wild variety. The seedlings can, of course, be grafted or chip budded with material from desired cultivars. The variety of an olive tree can also be changed by bark grafting or top working. Another method of propagation is transplanting suckers that grow at the base of mature trees. However, these would have to be grafted if the suckers grew from the seedling rootstock. A commonly practiced method is propagation from cuttings. Twelve to fourteen inch long, one to three inch wide cuttings from the two year old wood of a mature tree is treated with a rooting hormone, planted in a light rooting medium and kept moist. Trees grown from such cuttings can be further grafted with wood from another cultivar. Cutting grown trees bear fruit in about four years. Pests and diseases: The olive tree is affected by some pests and diseases, although it has fewer problems than most fruit trees. Around the Mediterranean the major pests are medfly and the olive fruit fly, Dacus oleae. In California, verticillium wilt is a serious fungal disease. There is no effective treatment other than avoiding planting on infested soils and removing damaged trees and branches. A bacterial disease known as olive knot is spread by pruning with infected tools during rainy months. Because the olive has fewer natural enemies than other crops, and because the oil in olives retains the odor of chemical treatments, the olive is one of the least sprayed crops. Harvest: Olive fruits that are to be processed as green olives are picked while they are still green but have reached full size. They can also be picked for processing at any later stage up through full ripeness. Ripe olives bruise easily and should be handled with care. Mold is also a problem for the fruit between picking and curing. There are several classical ways of curing olives. A common method is the lye-cure process in which green or near-ripe olives are soaked in a series of lye solutions for a period of time to remove the bitter principle and then transferred to water and finally a mild saline solution. Other processing methods include water curing, salt curing and Greek-style curing. Explicit directions for various curing and marinating methods can be found in several publications including Maggie Blyth Klein's book, Feast of the Olives, and the University of California Agricultural Sciences Publications Leaflet 21131. Both green-cured and ripe-cured olives are popular as a relish or snack. For California canned commercial olives, black olives are identical to green olives. The black color is obtained by exposure to air after lye extraction and has nothing to do with ripeness. Home production of olive oil is not recommended. The equipment required and the sheer mass of fruit needed are beyond most households. Commercial Potential: Commercial olive production is a multimillion dollar business in California. In the Mediterranean region olives and olive oil are common ingredients of everyday foods. Raw olives are sometimes sold in speciality produce stores, and home growers in California often sell their excess crop to others interested in home curing. There is also a growing interest in specialty olive oils, often produced commercially from small groves of olive trees. FURTHER READING * Bianchini, Francesco and Francesco Corbetta. The Complete Book of Fruits and Vegetables. Crown Publishers. 1976. * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. pp. 142-143. * Ferguson, Louise, G. Steven Sibbett and George C. Martin. Olive Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources: Publication 3353. 1994

Mulberry

2009-01-22T12:33:00.000-08:00

MULBERRY Morus spp. Moraceae Common Names: Mulberry. Species: White Mulberry (Morus alba L.), Black Mulberry (M. nigra L.), American Mulberry, Red Mulberry (M. rubra L.). Hybrid forms exist between Morus alba and M. rubra. Related Species: Korean Mulberry (Morus australis), Himalayan Mulberry (M. laevigata). Distant Affinity: Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), Jackfruit (A. heterophyllus), Fig (Ficus spp.), Che (Cudrania tricuspidata), African Breadfruit (Treculia african). Origin: The white mulberry is native to eastern and central China. It became naturalized in Europe centuries ago. The tree was introduced into America for silkworm culture in early colonial times and naturalized and hybridized with the native red mulberry. The red or American mulberry is native to eastern United States from Massachusetts to Kansas and down to the Gulf coast. The black mulberry is native to western Asia and has been grown for its fruits in Europe since before Roman times. Adaptation: The white mulberry, and to a lesser extent the red mulberry, are quite tolerant of drought, pollution and poor soil. The white mulberry is considered a weed tree in many parts of the country including urban areas. The black mulberry is more fastidious, faring less well in cold climates or areas with humid summers. The white mulberry is the most cold-hardy of the three species, although this varies from one clone to another. Some are damaged at 25° F, while others are unfazed at -25° F. Red mulberries are hardy to sub-zero temperatures. The black mulberry is the least cold-hardy of the three, although again cold tolerance seems to depend on the clone. In general it is limited to USDA Hardiness Zone 7 (0° to 10° F average minimum) or warmer. They have been planted only to a limited extent in America, mostly on the Pacific Coast. The mulberry makes a good town tree which will grow well in a tub. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: All three mulberry species are deciduous trees of varying sizes. White mulberries can grow to 80 ft. and are the most variable in form, including drooping and pyramidal shapes. In the South on rich soils the red mulberry can reach 70 ft. in height. The black mulberry is the smallest of the three, sometimes growing to 30 ft. in height, but it tends to be a bush if not trained when it is young. The species vary greatly in longevity. Red mulberry trees rarely live more than 75 years, while black mulberries have been known to bear fruit for hundreds of years. The mulberry makes an attractive tree which will bear fruit while still small and young. Foliage: The white mulberry is so-named for the color of its buds, rather than the color of its fruit. The thin, glossy, light green leaves are variously lobed even on the same plant. Some are unlobed while others are glove-shaped. Leaves of the red mulberry are larger and thicker, blunt toothed and often lobed. They are rough on their upper surfaces and pubescent underneath. The smaller black mulberry leaves are similar to those of the red mulberry, but with sturdier twigs and fatter buds. The species vary in the time of year they begin to leaf-out. White mulberries generally come out in early spring, almost two months before black mulberries. Flowers: Mulberry trees are either dioecious or monoecious, and sometimes will change from one sex to another. The flowers are held on short, green, pendulous, nondescript catkins that appear in the axils of the current season's growth and on spurs on older wood. They are wind pollinated and some cultivars will set fruit without any pollination. Cross-pollination is not necessary. In California mulberries set fruit without pollination. Fruit: Botanically the fruit is not a berry but a collective fruit, in appearance like a swollen loganberry. When the flowers are pollinated, they and their fleshy bases begin to swell. Ultimately they become completely altered in texture and color, becoming succulent, fat and full of juice. In appearance, each tiny swollen flower roughly resembles the individual drupe of a blackberry. The color of the fruit does not identify the mulberry species. White mulberries, for example, can produce white, lavender or black fruit. White mulberry fruits are generally very sweet but often lacking in needed tartness. Red mulberry fruits are usually deep red, almost black, and in the best clones have a flavor that almost equals that of the black mulberry. Black mulberry fruits are large and juicy, with a good balance of sweetness and tartness that makes them the best flavored species of mulberry. The refreshing tart taste is in some ways reminiscent of grapefruit. Mulberries ripen over an extended period of time unlike many other fruits which seem to come all at once. CULTURE Location: Mulberries need full sun and also adequate space. The distance between trees should be at least 15 ft. The trees should not be planted near a sidewalk. The fallen fruit will not only stain the walkway, but are likely to be tracked indoors. The trees are quite wind-resistant with some cultivars used as windbreaks in the Great Plains region. Soil: Mulberries like a warm, well-drained soil, preferably a deep loam. Shallow soils such as those frequently found on chalk or gravel are not recommended. Irrigation: Although somewhat drought-resistant, mulberries need to be watered in dry seasons. If the roots become too dry during drought, the fruit is likely to drop before it has fully ripened. Fertilization: Mulberries generally thrive with minimal fertilization. An annual application of a balanced fertilizer such as 10:10:10 NPK will maintain satisfactory growth. In California mulberries usually need only nitrogen. Pruning: No special pruning techniques are needed after the branches have been trained to a sturdy framework, except to remove dead or overcrowded wood. A mulberry tree can be kept to a tidy form by developing a set of main branches, and then pruning laterals to 6 leaves in July in order to develop spurs near the main branches. It is not advisable to prune the trees heavily since the plant is inclined to bleed at the cuts. Cuts of more than two inches in diameter generally do not heal and should be avoided at all cost. The bleeding will be less severe if the tree is pruned while it is dormant. Propagation: Mulberries can be grown from seed, although the plants can take 10 years or more to bear. Seed should be sown as soon as extracted from the fruit, although white mulberry seeds germinate better after stratifying one to three months before planting. Sprig budding is the most common method for grafting mulberries. A T-cut is made in the rootstock and a smooth, sloping cut is made on the lower end of the scion. The scion is then inserted into the T and wrapped and sealed. Other types of grafts are also usually successful, although there may be incompatibility between white and black mulberries. Hardwood, softwood and root cuttings also are suitable methods for propagating mulberries. Softwood cuttings of white mulberries root easily when taken in midsummer and treated with rooting hormone. Red mulberries are less easily rooted. Black mulberries are also somewhat difficult to propagate since they tend to bleed a lot. Pests and Diseases: Mulberries are generally free of pests and diseases, although cankers and dieback can occur. In some areas "popcorn disease" is an occasional problem, in which fruits swell to resemble popped corn. M. alba/M. rubra hybrids are particularly prone to this condition. The disease carries on from one season to the next, so collecting and burning infected fruits help control it. The ripe fruit is very attractive to birds, but there is usually enough fruit left over for harvesting. Harvest: White and red mulberry fruits (and hybrid fruits) are ready for harvest in late spring. The fruit of black mulberries ripen in summer to late summer. The fruits of white mulberries are often harvested by spreading a sheet on the ground and shaking the limbs. A surprising quantity can be gathered from a comparatively small and young tree. Black mulberry fruits are more difficult to pick. As the berries are squeezed to pull them loose, they tend to collapse, staining the hands (and clothing) with blood red juice. Unwashed the berries will keep several days in a refrigerator in a covered container. The ripe fruits of the black mulberry contain about 9% sugar with malic and citric acid. The berries can be eaten out of hand or used in any way that other berries are used, such as in pies, tarts, puddings or sweetened and pureed as a sauce. Slightly unripe fruits are best for making pies and tarts. Mulberries blend well with other fruits, especially pears and apples. They can also be made into wine and make an excellent dried fruit, especially the black varieties. FURTHER READING * Everett, T. H., ed. New Illustrated Encyclopedia of Gardening. vol. 7. Greystone Press, 1960. p. 1190. * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. pp. 391-392. * Johns, Leslie and Violet Stevenson, Fruit for the Home and Garden. Angus and Robertson, 1985. pp. 173-176 * Reich, Lee. Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Addison-Wesley, 1991. pp 173-183.

Macadamia

2009-01-22T12:31:00.000-08:00

MACADAMIA Macadamia spp. Proteaceae Common Names:Macadamia, Australian nut, Queensland Nut. Species: "Smooth-shelled Macadamia" (Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche), "Rough-shelled Macadamia" (M. tetraphylla L. Johnson). Hybrid forms exist between the two species. Distant Affinity: Helicia nut (Athertonia diversifolia), Chilean Hazel (Gevuina avellana), Australian Rosenut (Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia). Origin: Macadamia integrifolia is native to southeastern Queensland where it grows in the rain forests and close to streams. M. tetraphylla is native to southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales, growing in rain forests, in moist places and along stream banks. At the point where the two species meet, there are types that appear to be natural hybrids. The macadamia was introduced into Hawaii about 1881 where it was used as an ornamental and for reforestation. The Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station named and introduced several promising selections in 1948, which led to the modern macadamia industry in Hawaii. In California two seedling macadamias were planted in the early 1880's and are still standing on the Berkeley campus of the University of California. The importation of improved and named varieties into California from Hawaii began about 1950. Macadamias are also commercially important in Australia, South Africa and Central America. Adaptation: Macadamias are ideally suited to a mild, frost-free climate with abundant rainfall distributed throughout the year, roughly the same climate suitable for growing coffee. Both species, however, grow well in the coastal areas of California, although varieties often respond differently to a given location. Mature macadamia trees are fairly frost hardy, tolerating temperatures as low as 24° F, but the flower clusters are usually killed at 28° F. Young trees can be killed by light frosts. M. tetraphylla appears to be slightly more cold-tolerant. Consistently high summer temperatures will reduce yields, although again M. tetraphylla shows more tolerance. When grown in a large tub, macadamias make suitable container plants. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: Macadamias are large, spreading evergreen trees reaching 30 to 40 ft. high and almost as wide. More upright types are known and being selected because of their suitability for closer planting. The bark is rough but unfurrowed, brown and dark red when cut. The macadamia has proteoid roots, dense clusters of short lateral rootlets in well defined rows around the parent root axis. The prime function of such roots appears to be in increasing the surface area of the root system for maximum absorption. The vigor of seedlings appears to be related to the degree of proteoid root development. Foliage: The two species are fairly easily distinguished by their foliage. The leaves of M. integrifolia are 8 to 11 inches in length and occur usually in whorls of 3. The adult leaves are entire with few spines. New growth is pale green. The spiny, often sessile leaves of M. tetraphylla usually appear in whorls of 4 and may grow to 20 inches long. The new growth is bronzy pink. Growth in mature trees of both species occurs in two flushes, in spring and midsummer. In young trees four flushes may occur. Flowers: Flowers are borne on long narrow racemes arising from the axils of leaves or the scars of fallen leaves. They may be borne on the new growth if it is mature, but more often on the two, or three season's growth preceding the most recently matured flushes. The flowers, about 1/2 inch long, are perfect but incomplete in that they have no petals, but four petaloid sepals. M. integrifolia has creamy white flowers borne in clusters 6 to 12 inches long, while the flowers of M. tetraphylla are cream-colored or pink and borne in clusters up to 15 inches long. Macadamias can self-pollinate, although varieties vary from being totally self-compatible to being almost self-sterile. Wind pollination may play some role, but bees are apparently the major agent in pollination. Cross-pollination by hand has been shown to increase nut set and quality. Fruit: Macadamia nuts have a very hard seed coat enclosed in a green husk that splits open as the nut matures. As the common name indicates, this seed coat is smooth in the case of M. integrifolia. It holds a creamy white kernel containing up to 80% oil and 4% sugar. When roasted it develops a uniform color and texture. Although M. tetraphylla is often referred to as the rough-shelled macadamia, the seed coat of some cultivars are smooth, while others are rough and pebbled. The quality of the kernels of M. tetraphylla are also more variable. The oil content ranges from 65% to 75% and sugar content ranges from 6% to 8%. These factors result in variable color and texture when the the nuts are roasted under the same conditions as those of M. integrifolia. M. tetraphylla is well suited to the home garden, however, and has been planted for commercial production in California. CULTURE Location: Macadamias do best in full sun, although in hot climates partial shade can be beneficial. Windy locations should also be avoided. The brittle branches can be damaged by wind, especially when laden with a heavy crop of nuts. Soil: Macadamias will perform on a wide range of soil types from open sands and lava rock soils to heavy clay soils, as long as the soil is well drained. They do best, however, in deep, rich soils with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. Macadamias will not tolerate soil or water with high salt concentrations. In areas with low annual rainfall, leach the soil regularly. Irrigation: Macadamias can withstand periods of drought, but the harvests will be small and of low quality. Irrigation seems to be more important during certain critical periods in the crop cycle, particularly from the time of nut set, through nut filling and through the vegetative growth period in midsummer. The trees should receive at least as much water as is normally provided an avocado tree. The actual amount depends on the soil. Young trees also have higher water requirements than mature trees. In general it is important to water macadamias regularly and deeply during dry periods. Fertilization: Since macadamias grow slowly, they do not require large quantities of nitrogen fertilizer. Six months after planting out the trees should receive light applications of a balanced fertilizer such as a citrus mix or fish emulsion which contains no more than 1% nitrogen. Applications should be made at least twice a year. A mature tree should receive approximately 5 pounds of citrus mix per application and young trees proportionally less. Too much nitrogen may result in chlorosis. Micronutrient deficiencies are common in some areas, but these can be corrected with chelated sprays. Pruning: The object of pruning a macadamia is to form a tree with a single main stem and a framework of horizontal branches, starting at 3 ft. above the ground and from there at intervals of about 1-1/2 ft. In M. integrifolia there are 3 buds in a vertical row in each of the three leaf axils of a node. When the stem is is topped, all three upper buds will grow straight up. Only one of them must be allowed to remain and to continue the main stem, the other two being clipped off to a stub of about 3/8 inch. Now the buds below those two stubs will grow out in a more or less horizontal direction. Only these branches will flower and fruit. This process is repeated until a good framework has been established. Macadamias will take heavy pruning but this may drastically reduces yields. Frost Protection: Frost protection is more critical for young trees than more mature ones. While they are still on the small side, the plants can be given the standard methods of protection, such as plastic sheeting and such draped over a frame around the tree. As the trees get larger, they are more difficult to cover, but they also become more tolerant of mild frosts Propagation: Macadamias are easily grown from seed, but the seedlings may take 8 to 12 years to bear a crop and the quality of the nuts is unpredictable. Grafting is the most common method of producing nursery trees and is best done in spring or autumn. The wood of macadamia is hard, however, requiring the propagator to have experience to be successful. The scionwood is girdled some 6 to 8 weeks beforehand, the preferred wood being healthy mature material of the previous flush. The recommended graft is the simple whip, using material 3/8 to 5/8 inch thick. The side graft is also successful, and tip, wedge or cleft grafting is used under greenhouse conditions for working small seedlings up to 1 ft. high. Budding is also possible as well as propagation from softwood cutting and air-layering. Cutting-grown trees take some time to develop an adequate root system and will need staking when young. Some grafted varieties of macadamias begin bearing within 2 years, while others not for 7 to 8 years. Pests and Diseases: In Australia there are a host of pests and diseases that afflict macadamias, but in the U.S. there are few problems in home gardens. Occasionally, thrips, mites and scale may be troublesome, and anthracnose can infect leaves and nuts in humid climates. Canker can also result from wounds to the tree. Macadamias are fairly resistant to Phytophthora cinnamoni, and are sometimes used to replant avocado orchards infected with the fungus. The roots of the macadamia do not appear to be very attractive to gophers, but deer will browse on the new foliage. Harvest: Mature macadamia nuts will fall to the ground from late fall to spring. It is best to harvest fallen nuts, since shaking the trees to dislodge the nuts may also bring down immature nuts. A long pole can be used to carefully knock down mature nuts that are out of reach. A reasonably good tree will produce 30-50 pounds of nuts at 10 years age and gradually increase for many years. Harvested nuts should be dehusked and spread in a dry place protected from the sun and allowed to dry for 2 or 3 weeks. To finish drying put the nuts in a shallow pan and place in the oven at the lowest temperature setting (100° to 115° F) for about 12 hours. Stir occasionally and watch that the nuts do not cook. Excessive heating will damage nut quality. Store the nuts in a cool, dry area. A heavy plastic bag will prevent nuts from reabsorbing moisture. When the nuts are dry, the shells can be removed with a nutcracker. A cottage industry of sorts has developed around designing nutcrackers that can best cope with the hard shells. To home-roast macadamia nuts, place shelled nuts (whole kernels or halves only) in a shallow pan no more than two deep. Roast 40 to 50 minutes, stirring occasionally. Watch carefully and remove from the oven as soon as they start to turn tan. After roasting, the nuts store nicely, salted or unsalted, in airtight jars at 40° to 65° F. They can also be frozen. Macadamia nuts are excellent raw or roasted. In addition to being a quality snack, they can be used in almost any recipe that calls for nuts, including stuffings, fruit salads, cakes, etc. Commercial Potential: Macadamia nuts are considered by many to be the prime edible nut. Even at the high prices demanded, twice that of cashews, the market remains unfilled. This demand for macadamia nuts has spurred a flurry of plantings in areas all over the world where macadamias will thrive. There is a limited but significant commercial production of the nuts in Southern California. FURTHER READING * Butterfield, Harry M. A History of Subtropical Fruits and Nuts in California. University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station. 1963. * California Macadamia Society. Macadamia Nut Trees for California Gardens. Undated. * California Macadamia Society. Yearbook 1955 to date. * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. pp. 380-381. * Hamilton, R. A. and E. T. Fukunaga. Growing Macadamia Nuts in Hawaii. University of Hawaii, Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 121. 1959. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 59-61. * Page, P. E., comp. Tropical Tree Fruits for Australia. Queensland Department of Primary Industries. 1984. pp. 150-160. * Rosengarten, Frederick, Jr. Book of Edible Nuts. Walker and Co. 1984. * Samson, J. A. Tropical Fruits. 2nd ed. Longman Scientific and Technical. 1986. pp. 282-284.

Acerola

2009-01-22T12:29:00.000-08:00

ACEROLA Malpighia punicifolia L. Malpighiaceae Common Names: Barbados Cherry, West Indian Cherry, Cereza, Cerisier, Semeruco Related Species: Mapighia punicifolia has been renamed M. emarginata by recent authorities. Acerola is listed under M. glabra in the Index of CRFG Publications, 1969-1989. Distant Affinity: Ciruela del Monte (Bunchosia argentea), Ciruela Verde (Bunchosia armeniaca), Nance (Byrsonima crassifolia) Origin: The acerola is believed to originate from the Yucatan (linguistic evidence) and is distributed from South Texas, through Mexico (especially on the West Coast from Sonora to Guerrero) and Central America to northern South America (Venezuela, Surinam, Columbia) and throughout the Caribbean (Bahamas to Trinidad). Acerola has now been successfully introduced in sub-tropical areas throughout the world (Southeast Asia, India, South America), and some of the largest plantings are in Brazil. Adaptation: The acerola is typically found in dry, thorn-woodlands as a deciduous tree. It grows in San Diego County, coastal Southern California and in more extreme areas with protection. There are trees in Riverside, Calif. and San Bernardino County. In general, acerola has poor cold tolerance, with young plants typically killed at temperatures below 30° F. Trees can survive brief exposure to 28° F with loss of leaves. Trees are sensitive to wind (shallow root systems). The acerola is drought tolerant, and will adopt a deciduous habit; irrigation results in leaf and flower flush. Plants can easily adapt to pot culture in well-draining, limed soil. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: Large, relatively fast growing bushy shrub or small tree (to 15 feet). Can be pruned to any desired shape, but grows best as a managed shrub. Multiple or single trunks which can be trained. Occasionally, bushes appear to be composed of canes. Branches are brittle, and easily broken. Leaves may be irritating to some people. The root system is shallow, and trees can be toppled by wind, but they can be uprighted and recover over time Foliage: Acerola leaves are dark to light green, glossy when mature, obviate to lanceolate, with minute hairs which can be irritating. Foliage will drop during water stress, but recovers well with flush and flowering. Flowers: The flowers are sessile or on short-peduncled cymes, with small pink to white flowers with five petals. Up to 90% of flowers fall from tree, but "Blossom Set" can be used to counter this effect. Flowering can occur throughout the year, but is typically in cycles associated with rain. Irrigation can be used to induce flowering. Flowering occurs primarily on old growth. Pollination rarely observed, but thought to be by the solitary bee, Centris. Honeybees do not appear effective (contested). Cross-pollination may or may not be required depending on variety or strain (contested). In available cultivars, fruit does set without obvious pollinators or need for cross-pollination. Fruit: Fruits are round to oblate, cherry-like but with 3 lobes. They are bright red (rarely yellow-orange) with thin skin, easily bruised. The pulp is juicy, acid to sub-acid occasionally nearly sweet, with a delicate flavor and apple notes. The fruit is very high in Vitamin C, up to 4,000 mg per 100 g fresh weight, but typically around 1,500 mg C. Green fruits have twice the Vitamin C level of mature fruits. Fruits develop to maturity in less than 25 days. Seeds typically three with fluted wings, forming a triangle. Many aspects of seed viability have not been studied. CULTURE Location: The plant prefers full sun for fruit development, giving rise to the problem of winter protection in harsher climates. Shaded trees fruit, but at reduced fruit densities, and the plants themselves become somewhat spindly. Due to its shallow and smaller root system, acerola can be interplanted with other crops more closely than many trees. Soil: Acerolas grows in marl, limestone, clay and other heavy soils as long as it drains well; waterlogging of roots will cause plant death. Soil pH should be 6.5-7.5 as acid soils do not promote vigorous growth. Liming of trees and working into the soil is a common practice and necessary for high productivity. Irrigation: The acerola does best with 1000-2000 mm of water. However, as mentioned, acerola is drought-tolerant. Irrigation can be used to cause flowering and can regulate flower cycles. Under good constant irrigation, acerola will flower all year, with between 1 and 3 flowering peaks. Acerola does well with both overhead and drip irrigation. Fertilization: Acerolas requires a good, balanced fertilization schedule, and regular (once a year) liming of soil. Foliar sprays are very effective, and are used commercially. Mineral nutrition is very important, with good levels of boron and iron required. Pruning: The plant will tolerate heavy pruning, but requires time for recovery. In more tropical areas, plants do not seem overly affected by pruning. Plants are pruned commercially with citrus pruners. Can be kept as a small bush (e.g. 5 ft) and will produce well. Frost Protection: As with most frost-sensitive plants, the acerola will need some protection when grown in areas were frost can occur. Growing with overhead protection or growing next to a wall or building may be sufficient, but the plant may also be covered with heavy cloth or plastic sheeting draped over a frame for added protection. Container grown plants can be moved too a frost secure area. Propagation: Acerolas can be propagated by seed, cutting, grafting, and other standard methods. The plant does not appear stringent in its requirements. Seed viability can be very low; in some groves, seedlings are never observed. Cuttings are considered the simplest method of propagation and, with the use standard IBA hormone, give near 100% success rates. Grafting onto rootstocks has not been systematically studied, although grafts onto Byrsonima crassifolia rootstock have been successful. Pests and Disease: The Acerola is susceptible to root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) which causes serious problems with young trees and slower losses of productivity in older trees. It is also attacked by a variety of common insects, such as aphids, whitefly and scale. In other areas of the world (Mexico, Caribbean) weevils (Anthonomus spp.) are serious pests, and can limit fruit production. In tropical areas, Cercospora fungi can be a major cause disease. Harvest: The fruit deteriorates rapidly once removed from tree; sensory differences can be noted within 4 hours. The fruit undergoes rapid fermentation, and is typically unusable by 3-5 days. Unrefrigerated fruit develops mold quickly The best uses are direct eating, jams and jellies, and syrups. Juices, which are popular in Brazil, do not hold their sensory characteristics for extended periods. The fruit has also been used for baby food, as a supplement source for Vitamin C, as an ice cream and pop-sickle ingredient, and in many home recipes. Frozen fruit falls apart when thawed. In the tropics, there are typically 3 harvest periods per year. In more temperate areas, one and possibly 2 harvests occur. With regular irrigation, some fruit production may occur through much of the year. Eight year old trees can yield from 30 to 60 pounds of fruit. From seed, plant can fruit in the 2nd or 3rd year; cuttings may fruit in the first year. Productivity increases over a 15 to 20 year period, and then levels or declines. Forty year old productive trees are known in southern Florida. Commercial Potential: Plantings of acerola are increasing worldwide, with Brazil leading the way. The increased plantings are a direct result of increased use of acerola for a natural source of Vitamin C for nutritional supplements. FURTHER READING * Cooper, F. The acerola comes to California loaded with vitamin C. CRFG Yearbook 3, 1971, pp 2-8. * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. p. 127. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates, Julia F. Morton, Publisher, 1987, pp. 204-209.

White Sapote

2009-01-22T12:28:00.000-08:00

WHITE SAPOTE Casimiroa edulis Llave & Lex Rutaceae Common Names: White Sapote, Sapote, Zapote blanco, Casimiroa. Related Species: Woolly-leaf Sapote, Yellow Sapote (C. tetrameria Millsp.). Matasano, (C. Sapote Oerst.), C. pringlei. Distant affinity: Citrus, Bael Fruit (Aegle marmelos Correa), Wampi (Clausena lansium Skeels), Wood-apple (Feronia limonia Swingle) Origin: The white sapote is native to central Mexico. The wooly-leaf sapote is native from Yucatan to Costa Rica. Adaptation: The white sapote is successful wherever oranges can be grown. In California mature trees are found from Chico, southward. It does poorly in areas with high summer heat such as the deserts of the Southwest, and in the high humidity of the tropical lowlands of Hawaii and Florida. Otherwise, it can take a lot of abuse, but is brittle in wind. Established trees withstand occasional frost to 22° F., although young trees can be damaged at 30° F. The tree does best where the mean temperature from April to October is about 68° F. White sapotes are also tolerant of cold wet roots and north sides of buildings. Wooly-leaf sapotes are somewhat less hardy than the common white sapote. Only grafted trees are suitable for containers; seedlings get large fast. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The white sapote forms a medium to very large evergreen tree, 15 to 50 feet, according to cultivar and soil. It is deciduous under drought and other stress. The tree casts a dense shade. Growth is rapid, in flushes. It is densely branching, drooping at maturity. Young trees tend toward a single, limber stem for first 2 years often requiring staking. White sapotes have a taproot and other fibrous roots that are wandering and greedy like citrus. Foliage: The white sapote has glossy, bright green, palmately compound, hand-shaped leaves with 5 - 6 inch leaflets on a long petiole. New growth is usually reddish, becoming dark green with age, pale green beneath. Stress such as either prolonged cold or abnormal heat, will cause defoliation and a subsequent new growth flush. Leaves will burn in hot winds, which may also scar the fruit or cause it to drop. Flowers: The odorless flowers, small and greenish-yellow, are 4- or 5-parted, and born in terminal and axillary panicles. They are hermaphrodite and occasionally unisexual because of aborted stigmas. They follow growth flush and often rebloom again several months later. The flowers are attractive to bees, hoverflies and ants. The pollination tendencies or requirements of various cultivars have not yet been fully determined. Fruit: White sapote fruit ripens six to nine months from bloom. Some cultivars are alternate bearing. Fruit size varies from 1 inch to 6 inches for some of the newer cultivars. Fruit color ranges from apple-green to orange-yellow at maturity, according to cultivar. The fruit shape is round, oval or ovoid, symmetrical or irregular. The skin is very thin and smooth, with a waxy bloom, and is sometimes bitter. Green-skinned varieties have white flesh; yellow skinned varieties have yellow flesh. The flesh has a custard-like texture and a sweet delicious flavor reminiscent of peach or banana, although sometimes with a hint of bitterness. The fruit becomes pungent and unpleasant if overripe. In California the flesh of the wooly-leaf sapote is often bitter and unpleasant. The fruit contains 5 - 7 short-lived seeds thaat resemble a greatly enlarged orange seed. They range in size from 1 - 2 inches in length. The fruits also usually contain several aborted, thin, papery seeds. White sapotes bear within 10 years from seed, or 2 - 8 years from graft. CULTURE Location: Before planting, consider the mess made by unpicked fruit. Planting over a patio can be a big mistake. The ultimate size of the the tree should also be kept in mind. They prefer full sun. Soils: White sapotes prefer a well-drained soil with a pH between 5.5 and 7.5, but the tree will grow in almost any soil as long as it is well-drained. Irrigation: White sapote trees are drought tolerant but produce better fruit with regular, deep watering. Deep watering is also necessary to keep greedy roots deep in the ground. Shallow watering can encourage surface roots that will break pavement or ruin lawns. Drip irrigation is suitable for young trees. They will tolerate some salts, but gradually decline. White sapotes are often most productive following wet winters. Fertilization: Fertilizer formulas should vary with the nature of the soil, but, in general, the grower is advised to follow procedures suitable for citrus trees. Many white sapote trees have received little or no care and yet have been long-lived. Pruning: Young trees tend to grow vertically without much branching. After planting, remove the flowers and pinch out the terminal bud to encourage branching. Since branches are brittle in wind, and will often break at crotches that are either too narrow or horizontal, it is important to prune to eliminate such weak joints. Too much pruning or heading-back, however, may encourage weak growth. Propagation: Seedlings generally produce inferior fruit, but there is always a chance of producing a worthwhile new cultivar. Use fresh seed, washed and cleaned of flesh. Budding is done in the spring, if possible, on year-old seedlings. Trees are usually grafted., using stocks grown in place for three years. Scions should be girdled 1 to 2 months, then stored until the first sign of new stock growth in spring. Cleft, splice, or approach grafts are all successful. Seedling trees usually begin to bear in 7 - 8 years; grafted trees will start bearing in 3 or 4 years. Pests and diseases: The white sapote has few natural enemies but the fruits of some cultivars are attacked by fruit flies where that is a problem. Black scale often occurs on nursery stock and occasionally on mature trees in California. Mealybugs are sometimes found around fruit stems, and aphids can infest new growth. The trees also attract fruit-eating animals, including parrots. White sapotes are resistant to both Phytophthora and Armillaria. Snails can defoliate young trees and damage fruit. Control by keeping weeds away and applying bait. Harvest: White sapote fruit ripens in October (south) to February (north). A few cultivars will have fruit year-round, but the fruit from later blooms generally ripens poorly and is of poorer quality. Large trees commonly produce a ton of fruit per year. The fruits taste best when tree ripened, but tend to fall first. The fruits must be handled with care even when unripe as they bruise so easily and any bruised skin will blacken and the flesh beneath turns bitter. Mature fruits should be clipped from the branches leaving a short piece of the stem attached. This stub will fall off when the fruits become eating-ripe. Some cultivars will ripen to good flavor when picked hard and kept in a controlled atmosphere, while others become bitter and inedible. Fruits that have ripened on hand will keep in good conditions in the home refrigerator for at least 2 weeks. The fruit is said to be soporific and have an effect upon the central nervous system, hence the name Matasano, but it is pleasing and wholesome. It is very high in carbohydrates and low in acids. A 1922 analysis of flesh by the University of California found: 72.64% water, 0.44% ash, 0.64% protein, 20.64% total sugars (8.44% invert, 12.20% sucrose), 0.46% fat, 1.26% fiber,and 3.92% starches, etc. At 30 mg per 100 g of fresh pulp, the fruit is a moderately good source of vitamin C. Commercial potential: The white sapote is an old California fruit and is liked by most people who taste it. Its best markets are local stands and luxury or health food stores. Chain stores require a steady source of round, non-bitter fruit, packed in a single layer. Seasonal production can be avoided by selecting cultivars that give year-round harvest. The fruit must be picked hard mature with minimal handling. FURTHER READING * CRFG Yearbooks: Vol. 5 (1973) pp 6-20; Vol. 9 (1977) pp 18-19, 35-36; Vol. 16 (1984) pp 56-64; Vol. 18 (1986) pp 33-36 * CRFG Newsletters: Vol. 4 No. 3 (1972), pp 1-12; Vol. 5 No. 2 (1973), pp 8-11; Vol. 6 No. 1 (1974), pp 6-8 * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 191-196. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 71-72.

Tropical Guava

2009-01-22T12:27:00.000-08:00

TROPICAL GUAVA Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Common Names: Guava, guyava, kuawa. Related species: Brazilian guava, Guisaro (Psidium guinense Sw.), Cattley Guava, Strawberry Guava (P. cattleianum Sabine), Costa Rican Guava (P. friedrichsthalianum Ndz.), Para Guava (P. acutangulum DC.), Rumberry, Guavaberry (Myrciaria floribunda Berg.). Origin: The place of origin of the guava is uncertain, but it is believed to be an area extending from southern Mexico into or through Central America. It has been spread by man, birds and other animals to all warm areas of tropical America and in the West Indies (since 1526). Adaptation: The tropical guava is best adapted to the warm climate of Florida and Hawaii, although it can be grown in coastal Southern California, and with some protection, selected areas north to Mendocino County. Guavas actually thrive in both humid and dry climates, but can survive only a few degrees of frost. The tree will recover from a brief exposure to 29° F but may be completely defoliated. Young trees are particularly sensitive to cold spells. Older trees, killed to the ground, have sent up new shoots which fruited 2 years later. Guavas can take considerable neglect, withstanding temporary waterlogging and very high temperatures. They tend to bear fruit better in areas with a definite winter or cooler season. The adaptability of the guava makes it a serious weed tree in some tropical areas. The smaller guava cultivars can make an excellent container specimen. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: Guavas are evergreen, shallow-rooted shrubs or small trees to 33 ft, with spreading branches. Growth in California is rarely over 10 - 12 feet. The bark is smooth, mottled green or reddish brown and peels off in thin flakes to reveal the attractive "bony" aspect of its trunk. The plant branches close to the ground and often produces suckers from roots near the base of the trunk. Young twigs are quadrangular and downy. Foliage: Guava leaves leaves are opposite, short-petioled, oval or oblong-elliptic, somewhat irregular in outline, 2 - 6 inches long and 1 - 2 inches wide. The dull-green, stiff but leathery leaves have pronounced veins, and are slightly downy on the underside. Crushed leaves are aromatic. Flowers: Faintly fragrant, the white flowers, borne singly or in clusters in the leaf axils, are 1 inch wide, with 4 or 5 white petals. These petals are quickly shed, leaving a prominent tuft of perhaps 250 white stamens tipped with pale-yellow anthers. Guavas are primarily self-fruitful, although some strains seem to produce more fruit when cross-pollinated with another variety. Guavas can bloom throughout the year in mild-winter areas, but the heaviest bloom occurs with the onset of warm weather in the spring. The exact time can vary from year to year depending on weather. The chief pollinator of guavas is the honeybee. Fruits: Guava fruits may be round, ovoid or pear-shaped, 2 - 4 inches long, and have 4 or 5 protruding floral remnants (sepals) at the apex. Varieties differ widely in flavor and seediness. The better varieties are soft when ripe, creamy in texture with a rind that softens to be fully edible. The flesh may be white, pink, yellow, or red. The sweet, musky odor is pungent and penetrating. The seeds are numerous but small and, in good varieties, fully edible. Actual seed counts have ranged from 112 to 535. The quality of the fruit of guavas grown in cooler areas is often disappointing. CULTURE Location: Like other tender subtropicals, guavas need a frost-free location, but are not too fussy otherwise. They prefer full sun. Soil: The guava will tolerate many soil conditions, but will produce better in rich soils high in organic matter. They also prefer a well-drained soil in the pH range of 5 to 7. The tree will take temporary waterlogging but will not tolerate salty soils. Irrigation: Guavas have survived dry summers with no water in California, although they do best with regular deep watering. The ground should be allowed to dry to a depth of several inches before watering again. Lack of moisture will delay bloom and cause the fruit to drop. Pruning: Shaping the tree and removing water shoots and suckers are usually all that is necessary. Guavas can take heavy pruning, however, and can be used as informal hedges or screens. Since the fruit is borne on new growth, pruning does not interfere with next years crop. Fertilization: Guavas are fast growers and heavy feeders, and benefit from regular applications of fertilizer. Mature trees may require as much as 1/2 pound actual nitrogen per year. Apply fertilizer monthly, just prior to heavy pruning. Frost protection:Overhead protection and planting on the warm side of a building or structure will often provide suitable frost protection for guavas in cooler areas. A frame over the plant covered with fabric will provide additional protection during freezes, and electric lights can be included for added warmth. Potted plants can be moved to a more protected site if necessary. Propagation: Guava seed remain viable for many months. They often germinate in 2 - 3 weeks but may take as long as 8 weeks. Since guavas cannot be depended upon to come true from seed, vegetative propagation is widely practiced. They are not easy to graft, but satisfactory techniques have been worked out for patch-budding by the Forkert Method (probably the most reliable method), side-veneer grafting, approach grafting and marcotting The tree can also be grown from root cuttings. Pieces of any roots except the smallest and the very large, cut into 5 - 10 inch lengths, are placed flat in a prepared bed and covered with 2 - 4 inches of soil, which must be kept moist. They may also be grown by air-layering or from cuttings of half-ripened wood. Pieces 1/4 - 1/2 inch will root with bottom heat and rooting-hormone treatment. Trees grown from cuttings or air-layering have no taproot, however, and are apt to be blown down in the first 2 or 3 years. One of the difficulties with budded and grafted guavas is the production of water sprouts and suckers from the rootstocks. Pests and diseases: Foliage diseases, such as anthracnose, can be a problem in humid climates. They can be controlled with regular fungicide applications. Where present, root-rot nematodes will reduce plant vigor. Guava whitefly, guava moth and Caribbean fruit fly can be major problems in southern Florida, but have not been reported in California. Mealy-bugs, scale, common white flies and thrips can be problems in California. In some tropical countries the where fruit flies are a problem, the fruit is covered when small with paper sacks to protect it and assure prime quality fruits for the markets. Harvest: In warmer regions guavas will ripen all year. There is a distinctive change in the color and aroma of the guava that has ripened. For the best flavor, allow fruit to ripen on the tree. The can also be picked green-mature and allowed to ripen off the tree at room temperature. Placing the fruit in a brown paper bag with a banana or apple will hasten ripening. Mature green fruit can be stored for two to five weeks at temperature between 46° and 50° F and relative humidity of 85 to 95 percent. Fruit that has changed color cannot be stored for any extended periods. It bruises easily and will quickly deteriorate or rot. Commercial juice varieties have rock hard inedible seeds, deep pink flesh and hard yellow rinds. They are not good for eating out of hand but have extremely high vitamin C content. Commercial potential: Guavas are the only commercially significant myrtaceous fruit. It is an important fruit in many parts of the world suitable for its production. Guava is one of the leading fruits of Mexico. Commercial producation of guava in Hawaii and Florida is hampered by the presence of fruit flies. California is too cool except for a few selected sites. FURTHER READING * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 356-363. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 49-50 * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920. pp. 272-279

Tamarind

2009-01-22T12:25:00.000-08:00

TAMARIND Tamarindus indica L. Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Common Names: Tamarind, Tamarindo, Tamarin, Sampalok. Distant affinity: Carob (Ceratonia siliqua). Origin: The tamarind is native to tropical Africa and grows wild throughout the Sudan. It was introduced into India so long ago, it has often been reported as indigenous there also. It is extensively cultivated in tropical areas of the world. Sometime during the sixteenth century, it was introduced into America and today is widely grown in Mexico. Adaptation: The tamarind is well adapted to semiarid tropical conditions, although it does well in many humid tropical areas of the world with seasonally high rainfall. Young trees are very susceptible to frost, but mature trees will withstand brief periods of 28° F without serious injury. A tamarind tree in the Quail Botanical Gardens in San Diego County flowers, but rarely sets fruit, possibly because of the cool coastal climate. Dry weather is important during the period of fruit development. The tree is too large to be grown in a container for any length of time. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: Tamarinds are slow-growing, long-lived, evergreen trees that under optimum conditions can grow 80 feet high with a spread of 20 to 35 ft., in its native eastern Africa and Asia. However, in Southern California it seldom reaches more than 15 to 25 ft. in height. Foliage: The bright green, pinnate foliage is dense and feathery in appearance, making an attractive shade tree with an open branch structure. The leaves are normally evergreen but may be shed briefly in very dry areas during the hot season. There are usually as many as 10 to 20 nearly sessile 1/2 - 1 inch, pale green leaflets per leaf. The leaflets close up at night. B/W sketch Flowers: The inconspicuous, inch-wide, five-petalled flowers are borne in small racemes and are yellow with orange or red streaks. The flower buds are pink due to the outer color of the 4 sepals which are shed when the flower opens. Fruit: The 3 - 8 inch long, brown, irregularly curved pods are borne in abundance along the new branches. As the pods mature, they fill out somewhat and the juicy, acidulous pulp turns brown or reddish-brown. When fully ripe, the shells are brittle and easily broken. The pulp dehydrates to a sticky paste enclosed by a few coarse stands of fiber. The pods may contain from 1 to 12 large, flat, glossy brown, obovate seeds embedded in the brown, edible pulp. The pulp has a pleasing sweet/sour flavor and is high in both acid and sugar. It is also rich in vitamin B and high in calcium. There are wide differences in fruit size and flavor in seedling trees. Indian types have longer pods with 6 - 12 seeds, while the West Indian types have shorter pods containing only 3 - 6 seeds. Most tamarinds in the Americas are of the shorter type. CULTURE Location: The tamarind ultimately becomes a fairly large tree, so this should be kept in mind when planting out the tree. It should be planted in full sun and is highly wind-resistant with strong, supple branches. The tree generally forms a beautiful spreading crown that casts a light shade. Soils Tamarinds tolerate a great diversity of soil types but do best in deep, well drained soils which are slightly acid. Trees will not tolerate cold, wet soils but are tolerant of salt spray and can be planted fairly near the seashore. Irrigation: The tamarind is adapted to semiarid regions of the tropics and can withstand drought conditions quite well. Young trees require adequate soil moisture until they become established, but mature trees do quite well without supplemental irrigation. Avoid over-watering which results in soggy soils. Fertilization: The tamarind is not very demanding in its nutritional requirements. Young trees should be fertilized every 2 - 3 months with a 6-6-3 NPK or similar analysis fertilizer. Apply 1/4 lb. and gradually increase to about 1/2 lb. Thereafter, young trees should receive 1/2 lb. per application, per year of tree age, 3 - 4 times a year. Bearing trees can be fertilized with 8-3-9 NPK or similar analysis, at rates of about 1/2 lb. per application per year of tree age. Microelements, particularly iron may be required for trees in alkaline soils. Pruning: Young trees are pruned to allow three to five well spaced branches to develop into the main scaffold structure of the tree. Maintenance pruning only is required after that to remove dead or damaged wood. Propagation: Rootstocks are propagated from seed, which germinate within a week. Seeds retain their viability for several months if kept dry. Plant seeds 1/2 inch deep in containers filled with a UC soilless type potting media. They should be selected from trees of good production and quality. Even so, seedlings will be variable in quality and slow to bear. Veneer grafting, shield (T or inverted T) budding and air layering may be used to propagate desirable selections. Such trees will usually fruit within 3 - 4 years if provided optimum growing conditions. Seedlings should begin to produce fruit in 6 - 8 years, while vegetatively propagated trees will normally bear in half that time. Young trees should be planted in holes larger than necessary to accommodate the root system. They should be planted slightly higher than existing ground level to allow for subsequent settling of the soil and a water basin should be built around each tree to assure adequate moisture for young trees. Spacing of trees is normally 20 to 25 ft. in commercial orchards. However, solitary trees planted in Southern California rarely exceed 15 feet in diameter. Pests and Diseases: In California tamarinds are generally free of pests and diseases, although ants will sometimes spread black and olive scales. In India there are are a host of pests that attack the tree, including mealybugs, caterpillars, aphids, white flies, thrips and a variety of scales. Various weevils and borers can also infest the ripening pods or stored fruits. Harvest: Tamarind fruits mature in late spring to early summer. They may be left on the tree for as long as 6 months after maturity so that the moisture content will be reduced to 20% or lower. Fruits for immediate processing are often harvested by pulling the pod away from the stalk. Mature trees are capable of producing 350 lb. of fruit a year. Ripe fruit in humid climates is readily attacked by beetles and fungi, so mature fruit should be harvested and stored under refrigeration. Tamarinds may be eaten fresh, but they area most commonly used with sugar and water in the American tropics to prepare a cooling drink. The pulp is used to flavor preserves and chutney, to make meat sauces ant to pickle fish. Candy can be made by mixing the pulp with dry sugar and molding it into desired shapes. CULTIVARS There are selected cultivars which have sweeter pulp. One in Thailand is Makham Waan and the USDA's subtropical horticulture research unit in Miami, Florida has one called Manila Sweet. None are presently available in Southern California. FURTHER READING * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 115-121. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 432-436.

Sapodilla

2009-01-22T12:24:00.000-08:00

SAPODILLA Manilkara zapota L. Sapotaceae Common Names: Sapodilla, Chico, Chico sapote, Zapote chico, Zapotillo, Chicle, Sapodilla plum, Naseberry. Distant Affinity: Star Apple (Chrysophyllum cainito), Abiu (Pouteria caimito), Canistel (P. campechiana), Lucmo (P. lucuma), Sapote (P. sapota), Green Sapote (P. viridis). Origin: The sapodilla is believed to be native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as well as northern Belize and northeastern Guatemala. It was introduced long ago throughout tropical America and the West Indies and the southern part of the Florida mainland. Adaptation: Sapodillas are not strictly tropical and mature trees can withstand temperatures of 26° to 28° F for several hours. Young trees are more tender and can be killed by 30° F. The sapodilla seems equally at home in humid and relatively dry environments. Although it will grow in the milder parts of southern California, whether it will fruit regularly remains to be seen. A tree in La Mesa, Calif. has borne fruit. Cool California nights seem to be a limiting factor. The slow-growing sapodilla makes a satisfactory container or greenhouse specimen. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The sapodilla is an attractive upright, slow-growing, long-lived evergreen tree. Distinctly pyramidal when young, with age the tree may develops a crown that is dense and rounded or sometimes open and somewhat irregular in shape. It is strong and wind-resistant and rich in a white, gummy latex. In the tropics it can grow to 100 feet, but grafted cultivars are substantially shorter. A 40-year old tree in La Mesa, California is only about 12 feet tall. Leaves: The leaves are highly ornamental, 3 to 4-1/2 inches long and 1 to 1-1/2 inches wide. They are medium green, glossy, alternate and spirally clustered at the tip of forked twigs. Flowers: Sapodilla flowers are small, inconspicuous and bell-like, approximately 3/8 inch in diameter. They are borne on slender stalks in the axil of the leaves. There are several flushes of flowers throughout the year. Fruit: The fruit is round to egg-shape, 2 - 4 inches in diameter. The skin is brown and scruffy when ripe. The flesh varies from yellow to shades of brown and sometimes reddish-brown, and may be smooth or of a granular texture. The flavor is sweet and pleasant, ranging from a pear flavor to crunchy brown sugar. Fruits can be seedless, but usually have from 3 to 12 hard, black, shiny, flattened seeds about 3/4 inch long in the center of the fruit. CULTURE Location: The sapodilla prefers a sunny, warm, preferably frost free location. They are highly wind tolerant and can take salt spray. Soil: Sapodillas are well adapted to many types of soil. It thrives in very poor soils but flourishes also in deep, loose, organic soil, as well as light clay, sand or lateritic gravel. Good drainage is essential, the tree doing poorly in low, wet locations. It is highly drought resistant and approaches the date palm in its tolerance of soil salinity. Irrigation: The tree tolerates dry conditions remarkably well. Most mature sapodilla trees receive no watering, but irrigation in dry season will increase productivity. Fertilization: Newly planted trees need small and frequent feedings to become established. Fertilizers that contain 6-8% nitrogen, 2-4% available phosphoric acid and 6-8% potash give satisfactory results. First year applications should be made every two to three months beginning with 1/4 pound and gradually increasing to one pound. Thereafter, two to three applications per year are sufficient, in amounts proportionate to the increasing size of the tree. Pruning: Sapodillas require very little pruning. Frost Protection: Although mature sapodilla trees will take several degrees of frost, it is prudent to provide them with overhead protection if possible and plant them on the south side of a wall or building. Plants can also be covered with sheeting and such when significant frost is likely. Propagation: The sapodilla is most commonly propagated by seed, which remain viable for many years if kept dry. Easily germinated, they take five to eight years to bear. Since seed may not come true, vegetative propagation is desirable. Veneer grafting with seedlings as rootstock is the best method . Air layering and rooting of cuttings have not been successful. Pests and Diseases: In general the sapodilla tree remains quite healthy with little or no care. Insects and diseases usually don't cause sufficient damage to necessitate control measures, although the Wooly White Fly can sometimes be a problem. Oil sprays in winter are suggested. Harvest: It is often difficult to tell when a sapodilla is ready to pick. If the skin is brown and the fruit separates from the stem easily without leaking of the latex, it is fully mature but must be kept at room temperature for few days to soften. It is best to wash off the sandy scruff before putting the fruit aside to ripen. It should be eaten when firm-soft, now mushy. Firm-ripe sapodillas may be kept for several days in good condition in the home refrigerator. At 35° F they can be kept for 6 weeks. Fully ripe fruits frozen at 32° F keep perfectly for a month. The fruit is mainly consumed fresh. Miscellaneous: Chicle, the latex obtained from the bark of the tree has been used as a chewing gum base for many years. FURTHER READING * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 393-398. * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. p. 64. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 334-340.

Rose Apple

2009-01-22T12:23:00.000-08:00

ROSE APPLE Syzygium jambos Alston Myrtaceae Common Names: Rose apple, Plum rose, Malabar plum. Related Species: Water Apple (Syzygium aqueum), Blue Lilly Pilly (S. coolminianum), Water berry (S. cordatum), Jambolan, Java Plum (S. cumini), Water Pear (S. guineense), Malay Apple (S. malaccense), Java Apple (S. samarangense). Distant affinity: Eugenias (Eugenia spp.), Guavas (Psidium spp.), Jaboticaba (Myrciaria spp.). Origin: The rose apple is native to the East Indies and Malaya and is cultivated and naturalized in many parts of India, southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. It was introduced into Jamaica in 1762 and became well distributed in the West Indies, and at low elevations, from southern Mexico to Peru. The tree was planted in Florida before 1877, and later in California. Adaptation: Rose apples flourish in tropical or near-tropical climates, but the tree is proving to be hardy enough (to about 25° F) to be grown as an ornamental as far north in California as San Francisco. A beautiful specimen is thriving in the rather cold, windy rare fruit section of Quail Gardens in Encinitas. The rose apple is too large to make a suitable container plant DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The rose apple is a highly decorative evergreen large shrub or small tree growing to about 20 feet with low spreading branches and pale-brown bark. It is wide spreading and often will be wider than its height. Foliage: The lanceolate leaves are 4 to 9 inches in length by 2 inches wide, shiny and pink when they first emerge, fading to pale green. When mature they are slightly leathery and dark green. They are narrow and elliptic in shape and gradually taper to a point. The foliage is produced in a dense, luxuriant mass that hides all branches from view. Flowers: Rose apple flowers are large and showy, white to pale cream and sweetly scented. They are 2 - 4 inches wide and consist mostly of about 300 conspicuous stamens to 1-1/3 inches long. There are usually 4 or 5 flowers together in terminal clusters. The flowers are a rich source of nectar for honeybees. Fruit: The fruits are 1 - 2 inches wide, almost round or a little longer than wide. When ripe they may be greenish or dull-yellow flushed with pink. The skin is smooth and thin, and the firm flesh yellowish, sweet and rose scente. The texture is crisp, almost crunchy when the fruit is ripe and freshly picked. They contains one to four medium hard, round seeds, which rattle around inside the fruit. The seed as well as the roots are regarded as poisonous. Seedless, thick-fleshed fruits have been experimentally produced by treating opened flowers with growth regulators such as naphthoxy acetic acid. CULTURE Location: The rose apple needs a warm, sunny location that is not subject to significant frosts. It should also be kept in mind that the tree will occupy considerable space. The tree is moderately resistant to winds and tolerates cool, coastal conditions. Soils: A deep, loamy, well-drained soil is best for the rose apple, but it also flourishes on sand and limestone with very little organic matter. In India it grows along streams. It is a favorite dooryard tree in the Peruvian part of the Amazon, where the trees are planted high enough to avoid the frequent floods. Irrigation: The tree will tolerate semi-arid conditions, but prolonged dry spell are detrimental. It should have frequent irrigation when the weather is warm, and kept on the dry side when it's cold. Fertilization: The rose apple's needs are unknown. If planted in a deep loamy soil it will thrive with very little other requirements. In less fertile soils a light semi-annual feeding of a balanced fertilizer, such as 6-6-6 NPK may be in order. Pruning: Pruning of rose apples is not usually necessary. In some countries it is pruned drastically to promote dense growth and used as hedgerows around coffee plantations. Frost Protection: The rose apple will take several degrees of frost but does best when planted in a protected spot on the south side of a wall or building. Young plants can be given overhead protection and covered when significant frosts are expected. Propagation: Most rose apple trees are grown from seed. The seeds are polyembryonic and produce one to three sprouts, but seedlings are not uniform and there is considerable variation in fruit quality. The poorer fruits are dry and tasteless. Various vegetative propagation methods have been satisfactory. Treated semi-hardwood cuttings were moderately successful, while air-layering and veneer grafting of spring-flush scions have been successful to a greater degree. Fruiting takes about four years. Pests and diseases: The rose apple has very few serious diseases and insect problems, although in humid climates the leaves are subject to a sooty mold from aphid excretions. Root rot caused by Fusarium spp., and mushroom root rot (Armillariella tabescens) can attack the tree. Harvest: Rose apples bruise quite easily and are highly perishable. They must be freshly picked to be crisp. The fruit is only moderately interesting eaten out-of-hand, and is more often used in jellies and jams or preserved in combination with other fruits of more pronounced flavor. It is also cooked with sugar to make a dessert. When cooked with custards or puddings, they impart a rose flavor. The flowers can also be candied. CULTIVARS Insufficient tests have been made with strains from the West Indies, Mexico, and Guiana to tell if there are any significant differences. There are no known varieties. FURTHER READING * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 383-836. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 305-306

Pineapple

2009-01-22T12:21:00.000-08:00

PINEAPPLE Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae Common Names: Pineapple, Ananas, Nanas, Pina. Related Species: Pina de Playon (Ananas bracteatus). Distant affinity: Pingwing (Aechmea magdalenae), Pinguin (Bromelia pinguin), Pinuela (Karatas plumier). Origin: The pineapple is native to southern Brazil and Paraguay where wild relatives occur. It was spread by the Indians up through South and Central America to the West Indies before Columbus arrived. In 1493 Columbus found the fruit on the island of Guadaloupe and carried it back to Spain and it was spread around the world on sailing ships that carried it for protection against scurvy. The Spanish introduced it into the Philippines and may have taken it to Hawaii and Guam early in the 16th Century. The pineapple reached England in 1660 and began to be grown in greenhouses for its fruit around 1720. Adaptation: The pineapples is a tropical or near-tropical plant, but will usually tolerate brief exposures to 28° F. Prolonged cold above freezing retards growth, delays maturity and causes the fruit to be more acid. Pineapples are drought-tolerant and will produce fruit under yearly precipitation rates ranging from 25 - 150 in., depending on cultivar and location and degree of atmospheric humidity. They are successfully grown in southern Florida and coastal areas of southern California. The small plant adapts well to container and greenhouse culture and makes an interesting potted plant. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The pineapple plant is a herbaceous perennial, 2-1/2 to 5 ft. high with a spread of 3 to 4 ft. It is essentially a short, stout stem with a rosette of waxy, straplike leaves. Foliage: The long-pointed leaves are 20 - 72 in. in length, usually needle tipped and generally bearing sharp, upcurved spines on the margins. They may be all green or variously striped with red, yellow or ivory down the middle or near the margins. As the stem continues to grow, it acquires at its apex a compact tuft of stiff, short leaves called the crown or top. Occasionally a plant may bear 2 or more heads instead of the normal one. Flowers: At blooming time, the stem elongates and enlarges near the apex and puts forth an inflorescence of small purple or red flowers. The flowers are pollinated by humming-birds, and these flowers usually develop small, hard seeds. Seeds are generally not found in commercially grown pineapple. Fruit: The oval to cylindrical-shaped, compound fruit develops from many small fruits fused together. It is both juicy and fleshy with the stem serving as the fibrous core. The tough, waxy rind may be dark green, yellow, orange-yellow or reddish when the fruit is ripe. The flesh ranges from nearly white to yellow. In size the fruits are up to 12 in. long and weigh 1 to 10 pounds or more. CULTURE Location: Pineapples should be planted where the temperature remains warmest, such as the south side of a home, or in a sunny portion of the garden. Soil: The best soil for the pineapple is a friable, well-drained sandy loam with a high organic content. The pH should be within a range of 4.5 to 6.5. Soils that are not sufficiently acid can be treated with sulfur to achieve the desired level. The plant cannot stand waterlogging and if there is an impervious subsoil, drainage needs to be improved. Irrigation: The plant is surprisingly drought tolerant, but adequate soil moisture is necessary for good fruit production. Fertilization: Nitrogen is essential to increase fruit size and total yield, which should be added every four months. Spraying with a urea solution is another way to supply nitrogen. Fruit weight has also been increased by the addition of magnesium. Of the minor elements, iron is the most important, particularly in high pH soils. Iron may be supplied by foliar sprays of ferrous sulfate. Frost Protection: Pineapple plants require a frost-free environment. They are small enough to be easily covered when frost threatens, but cold weather adversely affects the fruit quality. Propagation: Pineapples are propagated by new vegetative growth. There are four general types: slips that arise from the stalk below the fruit, suckers that originate at the axils or leaves, crowns that grow from the top of the fruits, and ratoons that come out from the under-ground portions of the stems. Although slips and suckers are preferred, crowns are the main planting material of home gardeners. These are obtained from store-bought fruit and are removed from the fruit by twisting the crown until it comes free. Although the crown may be quartered to produce four slips, in California's marginal conditions it is best not to cut or divide the crown. The bottom leaves are removed and the crown is left to dry for two days, then planted or started in water. Pineapples are planted outside during the summer months. A ground cover of black plastic works very well for pineapples, both as protection from weeds and for the extra heat it seems to absorb. It also helps to conserve moisture. Traditionally, plants are spaced 12 inches apart. Set crowns about 2 inches deep; suckers and slips 3 to 4 inches deep. Pests and diseases: Mealybugs spread by ants can be a problem. Controling the ants will control the mealybugs. In most commercial growing areas, nematodes, mites and beetles can also be damaging, but these have not been a problem in California. Harvest: It is difficult to tell when the pineapple is ready to be harvested. Some people judge ripeness and quality by snapping a finger against the side of the fruit. A good, ripe fruit has a dull, solid sound. Immaturity and poor quality are indicated by a hollow thud. The fruit should be stored at 45° F or above, but should be stored for no longer than 4 - 6 weeks. Misc.: Fruiting can be forced when the plant is mature by using acetylene gas or a spray of calcium carbide solution (30 gms to 1 gal. water), which produces acetylene. Or calcium carbide (10 -12 grains) can be deposited in the crown of the plant to be dissolved by rain. A safer and more practical method for home growers is a foliar spray of a-naphthaleneacetic acid (1 gm in 10 gal water) or B-hydroxyethyl hydrazine. The latter is more effective. The plants usually produce for about four years, but they may last longer in California since the life cycle is slowed down by cooler weather. FURTHER READING * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 18-28. * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. pp. 12-14. * Samson, J. A. Tropical Fruits. 2nd ed. Longman Scientific and Technical. 1986. pp. 190-215.

Papaya

2009-01-22T12:20:00.000-08:00

PAPAYA Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Common Names: Papaya, Papaw or Paw Paw (Australia), Mamao (Brazil), Tree Melon. Related Species: Babaco (Carica pentagona), Mountain Papaya (C. pubescens), Chamburo (C. stipulata). Origin: The papaya is believed to be native to southern Mexico and neighboring Central America. It is now present in every tropical and subtropical country. Adaptation: Papayas have exacting climate requirements for vigorous growth and fruit production. They must have warmth throughout the year and will be damaged by light frosts. Brief exposure to 32° F is damaging and prolonged cold without overhead sprinkling will kill the plants. Cold, wet soil is almost always lethal. Cool temperatures will also alter fruit flavor. Papayas make excellent container and greenhouse specimens where soil moisture and temperature can be moderated. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The papaya is a short-lived, fast-growing, woody, large herb to 10 or 12 feet in height. It generally branches only when injured. All parts contain latex. The hollow green or deep purple trunk is straight and cylindrical with prominent leaf scars. Its diameter may be from 2 or 3 inches to over a foot at the base. Foliage: The leaves emerge directly from the upper part of the stem in a spiral on nearly horizontal petioles 1 to 3-1/2 feet long. The blade, deeply divided into 5 to 9 main segments, varies from 1 to 2 feet in width, and has prominent yellowish ribs and veins. The life of a leaf is 4 to 6 months. Flowers: The five-petalled flowers are fleshy, waxy and slightly fragrant. Some plants bear only short-stalked female flowers, or bisexual (perfect) flowers also on short stalks, while others may bear only male flowers, clustered on panicles 5 or 6 feet long. Some plants may have both male and female flowers. Others at certain seasons produce short-stalked male flowers, at other times perfect flowers. This change of sex may occur temporarily during high temperatures in midsummer. Male or bisexual plants may change completely to female plants after being beheaded. Certain varieties have a propensity for producing certain types of flowers. For example, the Solo variety has flowers of both sexes 66% of the time, so two out of three plants will produce fruit, even if planted singly. How pollination takes place in papayas is not known with certainty. Wind is probably the main agent, as the pollen is light and abundant, but thrips and moths may assist. Hand pollination is sometimes necessary to get a proper fruit set. Fruit: There are two types of papayas, Hawaiian and Mexican. The Hawaiian varieties are the papayas commonly found in supermarkets. These pear-shaped fruit generally weigh about 1 pound and have yellow skin when ripe. The flesh is bright orange or pinkish, depending on variety, with small black seeds clustered in the center. Hawaiian papayas are easier to harvest because the plants seldom grow taller than 8 feet. Mexican papayas are much larger the the Hawaiian types and may weigh up to 10 pounds and be more than 15 inches long. The flesh may be yellow, orange or pink. The flavor is less intense than that the Hawaiian papaya but still is delicious and extremely enjoyable. They are slightly easier to grow than Hawaiian papayas. A properly ripened papaya is juicy, sweetish and somewhat like a cantaloupe in flavor, although musky in some types. The fruit (and leaves) contain papain which helps digestion and is used to tenderize meat. The edible seeds have a spicy flavor somewhat reminiscent of black pepper. CULTURE Location: Papayas like to be warm with both sunshine and reflected heat, so the hottest place against the house where nothing else seems happy is an ideal location. They also like to be as free from wind as possible, although this is not as critical as their need for sun. Papayas can be grown successfully in shade, but the fruit is rarely sweet. They are best planted in mounds or against the foundation of a building where water can be controlled. Soils: Papayas need a light, well-drained soil. They are easily killed by excess moisture. The soil needs to be moist in hot weather and dry in cold weather. Since this is the opposite of California's rain pattern, in addition to good drainage, plastic coverings to prevent over-wetting in winter may also be worthwhile. Papayas do not tolerate salty water or soil. Irrigation: Watering is the most critical aspect in raising papayas. The plants should be kept on to the dry side to avoid root rot, but also need enough water to support their large leaves. In winter the plant prefers to remain as dry as possible. A plant that has been injured by frost is particularly susceptible to root rot. Fertilization: The fast-growing papaya requires regular applications of nitrogen fertilizers but the exact rates have not been established. Feed monthly and adjust according to the plant's response. They can take fairly hot organic fertilizing such as chicken manure if used with deep irrigation after warm weather has started. Phosphorus deficiency casuses dark green foliage with a reddish-purple discoloration of leaf veins and stalks. Pruning: Papayas do not need to be pruned, but some growers pinch the seedlings or cut back established plants to encourage multiple trunks. Frost Protection: Papayas need warmth and a frost-free environment, but can often withstand light freezes with some kind of overhead protection. This can be provided by building a frame around the plants and covering it with bedding, plastic sheeting, etc. when frost threatens. Electric light bulbs can also be used for added warmth. Potted specimens can be moved to a frost-secure area. Prolonged cold, even if it does not freeze, may adversely affect the plants and the fruit. Mexican papayas are more hardy than Hawaiian varieties. Propagation: Papayas are normally propagated by seed. To start a plant, extract the seeds from ripe papayas and wash them to remove the gelatinous covering. They are then dried, dusted with a fungicide and planted as soon as possible (the seeds loose their viability rapidly in storage). Plant the seeds in warm (80° F), sterile potting mix. Seeds should be planted in sterile soil as young papaya seedlings have a high mortality rate from damping off. Potting soil can be sterilized by mixing 50-50 with vermiculite and placing in an oven at 200° F for one hour. Under ideal conditions the seeds may germinate in about two weeks, but may take three to five weeks. Gibberellic acid can be used to speed up germination in some seasons. Seedlings usually begin flowering 9 - 12 months after they germinate. Seedling papayas do not transplant well. Plant them in large containers so the seedlings will have to be transplanted only once, when they go into the ground. Transplant carefully, making sure not to damage the root ball. To prevent damping off, drench the potting mix with a fungicide containing benomyl or captan. Set the plants a little high to allow for settling. A plastic mulch will help keep the soil warm and dry in wet winter areas, but remove it as soon as the weather becomes warm. Plant at least three or four plants to insure yourself of having females or plant hermaphroditic plants. Papaya plants can also be grown from cuttings, which should be hardened off for a few days and then propped up with the tip touching moist, fertile soil until roots form. Semihardwood cuttings planted during the summer root rapidly and should fruit the following year. Pests and diseases: Thrips, mites and white flies as well as In red spider and fruit spotting bugs are potential problems in some areas. The plants may also be attacked by mildew, anthracnose, root rot and various virus diseases Fruit flies often ruin the fruit in Florida and Hawaii. Nematodes can attack the roots and are often a factor in the decline of individual plant. Gopher damage can be avoided by planting in wire baskets. Papaya plants should probably be replaced every 4 years or so. Harvest: Papayas are ready to harvest when most of the skin is yellow-green. After several days of ripening at room temperature, they will be almost fully yellow and slightly soft to the touch. Dark green fruit will not ripen properly off the tree, even though it may turn yellow on the outside. Mature fruit can be stored at 45° F for about 3 weeks. Papayas are often sliced and eaten by themselves or served with a myriad of other foods. They can also be cooked to make chutney or various desserts. Green papayas should not be eaten raw because of the latex they contain, although they are frequently boiled and eaten as a vegetable. In the West Indies, young leaves are cooked and eaten like spinach. In India, seeds are sometimes used as an adulterant in whole black pepper. FURTHER READING * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. pp. 21.. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 336-346. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 64-66. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 225-240. * Samson, J. A. Tropical Fruits. 2nd ed. Longman Scientific and Technical. 1986. pp. 256-269.

Mango

2009-01-22T12:16:00.000-08:00

MANGO Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Common Names: Mango, Mangot, Manga, Mangou. Related species: Bindjai (Mangifera caesia), Horse Mango (M. foetida), Kuweni mango (M. odorata). Distant affinity: Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Gandaria (Bouea gandaria), Pistachio (Pistacia vera), Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), Ambarella (Spondias cytherea), Yellow Mombin (Spondias mombin), Red Mombin (Spondias purpurea), Imbu (Spondias tuberosa). Origin: The mango is native to southern Asia, especially Burma and eastern India. It spread early on to Malaya, eastern Asia and eastern Africa. Mangos were introduced to California (Santa Barbara) in 1880. Forms: The mango exists in two races, one from India and the other from the Philippines and Southeast Asia. The Indian race is intolerant of humidity, has flushes of bright red new growth that are subject to mildew, and bears monoembryonic fruit of high color and regular form. The Philippine race tolerates excess moisture, has pale green or red new growth and resists mildew. Its polyembryonic fruit is pale green and elongated kidney-shaped. Philippines types from Mexico have proven to be the hardiest mangos in California. Adaptation: Mangos basically require a frost-free climate. Flowers and small fruit can be killed if temperatures drop below 40° F, even for a short period. Young trees may be seriously damaged if the temperature drops below 30° F, but mature trees may withstand very short periods of temperatures as low as 25° F. The mango must have warm, dry weather to set fruit. In southern California the best locations are in the foothills, away from immediate marine influence. It is worth a trial in the warmest cove locations in the California Central Valley, but is more speculative in the coastal counties north of Santa Barbara, where only the most cold adapted varieties are likely to succeed. Mangos luxuriate in summer heat and resent cool summer fog. Wet, humid weather favors anthracnose and poor fruit set. Dwarf cultivars are suitable for culture in large containers or in a greenhouse. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: Mango trees make handsome landscape specimens and shade trees. They are erect and fast growing with sufficient heat, and the canopy can be broad and rounded, or more upright, with a relatively slender crown. It is ultimately a large tree, to 65 ft., but usually half that size in California. The tree is long-lived with some specimens known to be over 300 years old and still fruiting. In deep soil the taproot descends to a depth of 20 ft, and the profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots also send down many anchor roots which penetrate for several feet. Foliage: The leaves are dark green above and pale below, usually red while young. The midrib is pale and conspicuous and the many horizontal veins distinct. Full-grown leaves may be 4 to 12-1/2 in. long and 3/4 to 2 in. wide, and are generally borne in clusters separated by a length of naked stem bearing no buds. These naked stems mark successive flushes of growth. Each flush of growth will harden off to a rich green color before the next flush of growth begins. Flowers: The yellowish or reddish flowers are borne in inflorescences which appear at branch terminals, in dense panicles of up to 2000 minute flowers. These flowers respire a volatile substance, causing allergic and respiratory problems for some persons. Pollinators are flies, hoverflies, rarely bees. Few of the flowers in each inflorescence are perfect, so most do not produce pollen and are incapable of producing fruit. Pollen cannot be shed in high humidity or rain. Fertilization is also ineffective when night temperatures are below 55° F. Mangos are monoecious and self-fertile, so a single tree will produce fruit without cross pollination. Polyembryonic types may not require pollination at all. Branches may be ringed to induce flowering, but the results are mixed. Fruits: The fruits grow at the end of a long, stringlike stem (the former panicle), with sometimes two or more fruits to a stem. The fruits are 2 to 9 inches long and may be kidney shaped, ovate or (rarely) round. They range in size from 8 ounces to around 24 ounces. The flower scar at the apex is prominent, in some cultivars bulging from the fruit. The leathery skin is waxy and smooth, and when ripe entirely pale green or yellow marked with red, according to cultivar. It is inedible and contains a sap that is irritating to some people. The quality of the fruit is based on the scarcity of fiber and minimal turpentine taste. The flesh of a mango is peachlike and juicy, with more or less numerous fibers radiating from the husk of the single large kidney-shaped seed. Fibers are more pronounced in fruits grown with hard water and chemical fertilizers. The flavor is pleasant and rich and high in sugars and acid. The seed may either have a single embryo, producing one seedling, or polyembryonic, producing several seedlings that are identical but not always true to the parent type. It is impossible to distinguish true-to-type from zygotic seedlings from the same fruit. Some seedlings produce numerous tiny, parthenocarpic fruits which fail to develop and abort. Mango trees tend to be alternate bearing. CULTURE Location: The mango grows to a good size and casts a dense shade, but the roots are not destructive. It requires full sun and perfect air drainage in winter. It does best at the top or middle level of a slope. A windbreak should be provided in exposed areas. The trees may also need staking. In the desert it needs the shade of other trees; or plant on the north side of the house. In the garden or near the coast, plant against a south wall, or in an area surrounded by paving, to provide maximum heat. In the greenhouse, full light and free air movement are important to avoid disease. Soil: Mangos will grow in almost any well-drained soil whether sandy, loam or clay, but avoid heavy, wet soils. A pH between 5.5 and 7.5 is preferred. They are somewhat tolerant of alkalinity. For good growth, mangos needs a deep soil to accommodate their extensive root systems. Irrigation: Irrigation should start when the weather warms: February in the desert, April at the coast. Continue every one to two weeks, more often in light soils, nearly continuously in the desert, until the fruit is harvested. Irrigation may be discontinued when rains are sufficient to maintain soil moisture. In the greenhouse keep watered until the fruit is harvested, then reduce to the minimum required to avoid wilting. Watering is then increased after one to two months to initiate a new bloom and growth cycle. Fertilization: Mango trees require regular applications of nitrogen fertilizer to promote healthy growth flushes and flower production. Chelated micronutrients, especially iron, are also often necessary. A feeding program similar to one used for citrus is satisfactory, but do not fertilize after midsummer. Organic fertilizers perform best, since the trees are subject to fertilizer burn. Young trees are particularly sensitive to over-fertilizing, but respond well to fish emulsion. Sandy soils require more fertilizer than loam or clay. Pruning: Healthy trees require little pruning, although pruning to stimulate new growth promotes uniform annual bearing. Removing some flower clusters during a heavy bloom year may also alleviate alternate bearing. Mangos may be pruned to control size in late winter or early spring without a loss of fruit. Sap and debris can cause severe dermatitis, similar to poison oak. It is best to avoid burning prunings or litter. Frost Protection: During the first two years, the trees should be given some protection such as an overhead cover during any frost threat. Once the tree is 3 to 4 feet high, overhead protection is difficult but still worthwhile, especially if an unusual cold snap is predicted. Frost damage can also be avoided by erecting an overhead lath shelter, orchard heating, placing lights under the canopy, or using foam or straw trunk wraps. Do not prune dead parts until all frost danger is past. Propagation: Seedlings are a gamble. Supermarket fruits may have been treated to sterilize, or chilled too long to remain viable. These seeds are normally discolored gray. To grow mangos from seed, remove the husk and plant the seed (before it dries out) with the hump at soil level. The seeds normally germinate in two to four weeks, and do best with bottom heat. Multiple polyembryonic seedlings should be carefully separated as soon as they have sprouted so not to loose the cotyledons. Seedling mangos will bloom and bear in three to six years. Some success at grafting can be obtained in April and September, but better luck is more likely during May through August. Small plants with a diameter of a pencil graft well with the common whip graft. On larger trees the crown groove bark graft allows several scions to be put on at once. Fully grown trees may be topworked by crown or groove bark graft, or prune hard and whip graft sprouts later. Plastic bagging with a few drops of moisture improves the graft's chances of being successful. Graft in the second year, using cleft, side or tongue (splice) graft in midsummer. Scion and stock should be swelling for a new flush of growth. Grafts are most successful if the leaves are allowed to remain below the graft, but remove suckers. Use pencil-sized scions of hard wood with three or four nodes. Cover with loose punctured white paper bag for shade. If top working, do not dehorn the entire tree at one time; leave at least two fully leafed branches intact. Marcottage is feasible in humid climates or greenhouses, but results in few plants. Although budding is rare in California; it can be done by using a shield bud in an inverted T, at the moment the tree begins a new growth flush. Cuttings are rarely successful, although experiments have shown that rooting may be improved by treating with ethylene, which destroys the root-inhibiting hormone in the cambium. The Mango is a suitable and productive tree for growing in a container or greenhouse. Start with established plants of named cultivars. Select the finest Indian cultivars, which are most rewarding for the effort involved. A large tub is required, with casters for easy moving. In the greenhouse, the atmosphere should be kept dry as possible to avoid anthracnose. Place a fan nearby to move the air around trees and use ventilators. The plants should be hosed down in the morning on a weekly basis to control mites. A regular spraying of appropriate pesticides for anthracnose and mealybug may also be needed. The location of the intended planting will dictate the choice of cultivars. Seedlings selected under California conditions have provided cultivars suitable for coastal counties. Florida cultivars are generally more suitable in the desert and Central Valley. Pests and Diseases: Scale, mealybugs and mites are frequent pests in the greenhouse and orchard. In the greenhouse, thrips often turn leaves rusty brown. Malathion is the conventional spray for insect pests; sulfur works on mites. Gophers are attracted to the roots. The flower panicles, young fruit and leaves are subject to powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae), especially in rainy weather or frequent fog. A spray of powdered kelp at bud break will often control it. Sodium bicarbonate and fungicide sprays are also effective. Trees planted in pavement openings seldom develop mildew. Bacterial spot (Colletotrichum oleosporides) distorts and turns developing leaves black and disfigures developing fruit. Infection may spread to fresh young growth. Anthracnose can be controlled with bimonthly applications of copper spray or captan as a growth flush begins, and until the flowers open. Resume spraying when the fruits begin to form. Mango trees are very sensitive to root loss that can occur from digging, transplanting or gopher damage. "Soft nose," a physical disorder of shriveling at the fruit apex, seems associated with excessive nitrogen in soil. Exposed fruits sunburn in high temperatures. Fruit Harvest: Mango fruit matures in 100 to 150 days after flowering. The fruit will have the best flavor if allowed to ripen on the tree, although winter-maturing fruits must be ripened indoors in coastal California. Ripening fruit turns the characteristic color of the variety and begins to soften to the touch, much like a peach. Commercial marketability requires 13% dissolved solids (sugars). When the first fruit shows color on tree, all of that size fruit or larger may be removed; repeat when remaining fruit colors. Do not store below 50° F.The fruit ripens best if placed stem end down in trays at room temperature and covered with a dampened cloth to avoid shriveling. Mangos ripen in June from January bloom in interior California, and October from April bloom on the coast. Less time is required to mature greenhouse fruit. Commercial potential: The mango is the apple (or peach) of the tropics, and one of the most commonly eaten fruits in tropical countries around the world. The fruit is grown commercially on a small scale in Florida. In California a large planting in the Coachella Valley has now reached production stage. The quality of the fruit is generally comparable to Florida mangos, but has other advantages., i.e. the lack of fruit fly and seed weevil populations. Mexico, and to a lesser extent Central America, is a major supplier to U.S. markets today FURTHER READING * California Avocado Society Yearbook. 1940. pp. 7. * Collins. The Mango in Puerto Rico. USDA BPI Bulletin 28, 1903. * Gangolly, S. R. et al. The Mango. New Delhi, Indian Council of Agriculture Research, 1957. * Higgins. The Mango in Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii AES Bulletin 12, 1906. * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. pp. 61-63. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 221-237. * Naik, K. C. and S. R. Gangolly. Monograph on Classification and Nomenclature of South Indian Mangos. Madras, Supt. of Government Press, 1950. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 61-64. * Pope, W. T. Mango Culture in Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii AES Bulletin 58, 1929. * Popenoe, F. W. The Mango in Southern California. Journal of Economic Botany, vol. 1, pp. 153-200. * Popenoe, W. Pollination of the Mango. USDA Bulletin 542, 1917. * Ruehle, G.D and R.B., Ledlin. Mango Growing in Florida. Univ. of Florida AES Bulletin, 1955. * Samson, J. A. Tropical Fruits. 2nd ed. Longman Scientific and Technical. 1986. pp. 216- FURTHER READING * California Avocado Society Yearbook. 1940. pp. 7. * Collins. The Mango in Puerto Rico. USDA BPI Bulletin 28, 1903. * Gangolly, S. R. et al. The Mango. New Delhi, Indian Council of Agriculture Research, 1957. * Higgins. The Mango in Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii AES Bulletin 12, 1906. * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. pp. 61-63. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 221-237. * Naik, K. C. and S. R. Gangolly. Monograph on Classification and Nomenclature of South Indian Mangos. Madras, Supt. of Government Press, 1950. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 61-64. * Pope, W. T. Mango Culture in Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii AES Bulletin 58, 1929. * Popenoe, F. W. The Mango in Southern California. Journal of Economic Botany, vol. 1, pp. 153-200. * Popenoe, W. Pollination of the Mango. USDA Bulletin 542, 1917. * Ruehle, G.D and R.B., Ledlin. Mango Growing in Florida. Univ. of Florida AES Bulletin, 1955. * Samson, J. A. Tropical Fruits. 2nd ed. Longman Scientific and Technical. 1986. pp. 216-234. # California Avocado Society Yearbook. 1940. pp. 7. # Collins. The Mango in Puerto Rico. USDA BPI Bulletin 28, 1903. # Gangolly, S. R. et al. The Mango. New Delhi, Indian Council of Agriculture Research, 1957. # Higgins. The Mango in Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii AES Bulletin 12, 1906. # Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. pp. 61-63.

Malabar Chesnut

2009-01-22T12:15:00.000-08:00

MALABAR CHESTNUT B/W sketch Pachira aquatica Bombacaceae Common Names: Malabar Chestnut, Guiana Chestnut, Guyana Chestnut, Provision tree, Saba Nut Related Species: Mamorana Grande (Pachira insignis). (Listed as Bombax glabra in the Index of CRFG Publications, 1969-1989.) Distant affinity: Baobob, (Adansonia digitata), Durian (Durio zibethinus), Almirajo (Patinoa almirajo), Chupa-chupa, South American Sapote (Quararibea cordata). Origin: The Malabar chestnut is native to an area from southern Mexico to Guyana and northern Brazil. Adaption: Tropical estuaries are the native habitat of the Malabar chestnut, so it is perhaps best suited to Hawaii and southern Florida. Even so, the plant also grows well in the milder parts of southern California. Several handsome specimens are thriving in the Quail Gardens collection near Encinitas, Calif., which has more cold and wind than many home gardens. The plant will tolerate brief exposure to temperatures as low as 28° F, but may drop some or most of its leaves. Malabar chestnuts make attractive potted plants and add an attractive tropical note to patios and sun rooms. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The Malabar chestnut is a very showy evergreen tree with greenish bark that can grow to 60 ft. in the tropics. In California the growth is more like 10 to 15 ft. tall with a spread of 8 to 10 feet. Foliage: The shiny, bright green, alternate palmately compound leaves of the Malabar chestnut grow to about 12 inches long and are quickly shed. They are larger and showier than Chorisia speciosa, the popular floss-silk tree. Young leaves and flowers are cooked and used as a vegetable. Flowers: The petals of the very large creamy white flowers of the Malabar chestnut curl back to the base of the flower, leaving only the spectacular clusters of 3 to 4 inch cream-white stamens. Fruit: The five-valved fruit of Malabar chestnut is an ovoid, woody green pod which may reach 4 to 12 inches in length and 2 to 2-1/2 inches in diameter, bearing some resemblance to kapok or silk floss seed pods. The tightly packed seeds (nuts) inside enlarge until the pod bursts and the seed fall to the ground. The rounded seeds are without floss and 1/2 inch or larger in diameter. They are edible raw or roasted. CULTURE Location: A frost-free location with some protection from hot, drying winds is the best choice for the plant. It will take full sun to partial shade. Overall, the tree is a handsome landscape addition. Soils: Malabar chestnuts are not overly fussy about soil as long as it is well drained. Irrigation: The Malabar chestnut needs consistent and regular watering, although logic would suggest that in California the plant should be kept on the dry side during the cold winter months. Fertilization: Malabar chestnuts need only a light monthly fertilizing with a balanced, all-purpose fertilizer during the warm months. Pruning: The Malabar chestnut seldom needs pruning. Propagation: The tree may be propagated by seed and cuttings, and probably by air-layering. Pests and diseases: The Malabar chestnut appears to be largely free of pests and diseases in California. Container specimens should be watched for usual house plant pests such as mealybugs. Harvest: The nuts of the Malabar chestnut are harvested when the seed pods burst. The raw nuts taste like peanuts and will keep for months in a cool, dry place. Roasted or fried in oil they have the flavor of chestnuts, and can be ground into a flour for bread baking. FURTHER READING See Index of CRFG Publications, 1969 - 1989 and annual indexes of Fruit Gardener for additional articles on the Malabar chestnut.

Lychee

2009-01-22T12:11:00.000-08:00

LYCHEE Litchi chinensis Sonn. Sapindaceae Common Names: Lychee, Litchi, Leechee, Lichee, Lichi. Distant Affinity: Akee (Blighia sapida), Longan (Dimocarpus longan), Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), Pulasan (N. mutabile), Fijian longan (Pometia pinnata). Origin: The lychee is native to low elevations of the provinces of Kwangtung and Fukien in Southern China. Cultivation spread over the years through neighboring areas of southeastern Asia and offshore islands. It reached Hawaii in 1873, and Florida in 1883, and was conveyed from Florida to California in 1897 Adaptation: Lychees require seasonal temperature variations for best flowering and fruiting, Warm, humid summers are best for flowering and fruit development, and a certain amount of winter chilling is necessary for flower bud development. Most varieties need between 100 and 200 hours of standard chilling (32° - 45° F). Cool winters with low rainfall are ideal for lychees. The trees become more hardy as they age. Mature trees have survived temperatures as low as 25° F when fully hardened off. Young trees may be killed by a light frost. Lychees can be successfully grown in frost-free coastal areas of California. There are trees in San Diego, California that are over 90 years old with no sign of decline in sight. It first fruited in Santa Barbara in 1914. They can be grown for a short period in a large container. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The lychee tree is handsome, dense, round-topped and slow-growing with smooth, gray, brittle trunk and limbs. Under ideal conditions they may reach 40 feet high, but they are usually much smaller The tree in full fruit is a stunning sight. Foliage: The leathery, pinnate leaves are divided into four to eight leaflets. They are reddish when young, becoming shiny and bright green. Lychee trees have full foliage and branch to the ground. Flowers: The tiny petalless, yellowish-green flowers are borne in in terminal clusters to 30 inches. Lychees are eye-catching in spring when the huge sprays of flowers adorn the tree. Flowering precedes fruit maturity by approximately 140 days. Fruits: The fruit is covered by a leathery rind or pedicarp which is pink to strawberry-red in color and rough in texture. A greenish-yellow variety is not grown in California at present. Fruit shape is oval, heart-shaped or nearly round, 1 to 1-1/2 inches in length. The edible portion or aril is white, translucent, firm and juicy. The flavor is sweet, fragrant and delicious. Inside the aril is a seed that varies considerably in size. The most desirable varieties contain atrophied seeds which are called "chicken tongue". They are very small, up to 1/2 inch in length. Larger seeds vary between 1/2 to 1 inch in length and are plumper than the chicken tongues. There is also a distinction between the lychee that leaks juice when the skin is broken and the "dry and clean" varieties which are more desirable. In some areas lychees tend to be alternate bearers. Fruit splitting is usually caused by fluctuating soil moisture levels. CULTURE Location: Lychees need full sun, but young trees must be protected from heat, frost and high winds. Soil: The tree needs a well-drained soil that is rich in organic matter. A soil pH between 5.5 and 7.5 is acceptable, but plants grow much better in soils with a pH at the low end of this range. Apply a thick layer of organic mulch to the soil after planting. Irrigation: The lychee will not tolerate standing water, but requires very moist soil, so water the tree regularly when it is growing actively. The trees are very sensitive to damage from salts in the soil or in water. Leach the soil regularly in the Southwest. Fertilization: Young trees tend to grow slowly, and many gardeners tend to give them too much fertilizer in an attempt to push them along. Young trees should receive only light applications of a complete fertilizer. Mature trees are heavier feeders and should be fertilized regularly from spring to late summer. Use fertilizers formulated for acid-loving plants. Chelated iron and soil sulfur may be necessary in areas with alkaline soils. Pruning: Prune young trees to establish a strong, permanent structure for easy harvest. After that, removing crossing or damaged branches is all this is necessary, although he trees can be pruned more heavily to control size. V-shaped crotches should be avoided because of the wood's brittle nature. Frost Protection: Lychees need warmth and a frost-free environment, but can often withstand light freezes with some kind of overhead protection. When they are young, this can be provided by building a frame around the plants and covering it with bedding, plastic sheeting, etc. when frost threatens. Electric light bulbs can also be used for added warmth. Propagation: Air-layering is the most common method of propagating lychees because grafting is difficult and seedlings are not reliable producers of quality fruit. To grow a plant from seed it is important to remember that seeds remain viable for no more than a day or two under dry conditions. Young seedlings grow vigorously until they reach 7 or 8 inches in height. They will stay at this height for up to two years without further noticeable growth. Wedge and bud grafts are possible, but seldom used. When planting a Lychee, hole preparation is the same as for planting avocados. If planting marcots directly, most leaves should be removed. A round of hog wire covered with plastic gives excellent wind protection and also holds moisture in. In case of a freeze, one has only to throw a blanket over the top. The plastic should not touch the plant. This protection should be planned on and taken care of the day the plant goes into the ground. Pests and Diseases: Mites, scale and aphids occasionally infest lychees. Birds are often attracted to lychees, eating both the immature and the ripe fruit. It may be necessary to cover the plants with a protective netting. Harvest: The Fruit must be allowed to ripen fully on the tree. Overly mature fruit darken in color and lose their luster. The flavor lacks the richness associated with a certain amount of acidity. To harvest, snip off entire fruit clusters, keeping a short piece of the stem attached. Lychees can be stored for up five weeks in the refrigerator. They can also be frozen or dried. Lychees will begin to deteriorate within three days at room temperature. FURTHER READING * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 249-259. * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. pp. 57. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 55-57. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 312-325. * Samson, J. A. Tropical Fruits. 2nd ed. Longman Scientific and Technical. 1986. pp. 300-302.

Jujube

2009-01-22T12:08:00.000-08:00

JUJUBE Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Rhamnaceae Common Names: Jujube, Chinese Date, Tsao. Related Specie: Indian Jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana). Distant Affinity: Purple Haw (Colubrina texensis), Raisin Tree (Hovenia dulcis). Origin: The jujube originated in China where they have been cultivated for more than 4,000 years and where there are over 400 cultivars. The plants traveled beyond Asia centuries ago and today are grown to some extent in Russia, northern Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East and the southwestern United States. Jujube seedlings, inferior to the Chinese cultivars, were introduced into Europe at the beginning of the Christian era and carried to the U. S. in 1837. It wasn't until 1908 that improved Chinese selections were introduced by the USDA. Adaptation: The jujube can withstand a wide range of temperatures; virtually no temperature seems to be too high in summertime. Winter dormancy allows it to withstand temperatures to about -28° F, yet it requires only a small amount of winter chill in order for it to set fruit. The plant revels in summer sun and heat, with the lack of either limiting fruit production more than winter cold. Yet jujubes have fruited in the Puget Sound and low Cascade regions of Washington State as well as in Pennsylvania. Fruiting of some cultivars has also been reported in northern Florida.The Indian jujube, which is more sensitive to frost, is grown in Florida, but the fruit is considered inferior. Jujube trees are not particularly suitable for container culture, but can be grown in this manner in a large container. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The jujube is a small, deciduous tree, growing to 40 feet tall in Florida, but smaller in size in California. The naturally drooping tree is graceful, ornamental and often thorny with branches growing in a zig-zag pattern. The wood is very hard and strong. Jujube cultivars vary in size and conformation, with some being very narrow in habit and others being more widespread. One cultivar, the So, seems to be fairly dwarfing in habit. After 30 years of growth in an average site, trees can be 30 feet tall with a crown diameter of up to 15 feet. Plants send up suckers (often with intimidating spines) from their roots, and these suckers can appear many feet from the mother plant. Currently, these root suckers must be controlled by mowing or hoeing. Foliage: The small, ovate or oval leaves are 1-2 inches long and a shiny bright green. In the autumn, the leaves turn bright yellow before falling. There are usually two spines at the base of each leaf. Some spines may be hooked while others are long daggers. Virtually thornless cultivars are known. As the growing season commences, each node of a woody branch produces one to ten branchlets. Most of these are deciduous, falling from the plant in autumn. Flowers: The inconspicuous, 1/5 inch diameter, white to greenish-yellow flowers are somewhat fragrant and produced in large numbers in the leaf axils. The flowering period extends over several months from late spring into summer. However, individual flowers are receptive to pollen for only one day or less. Pollination needs of the jujube are not clearly defined, but appear to be done by ants or other insects and possibly by the wind. Most jujube cultivars produce fruit without cross-pollination . The jujube is well protected from late spring frosts by delayed budding until all chance of cold weather has passed. Fruit: The fruit is a drupe, varying from round to elongate and from cherry-size to plum-size depending on cultivar. It has a thin, edible skin surrounding whitish flesh of sweet, agreeable flavor. The single hard stone contains two seeds. The immature fruit is green in color, but as it ripens it goes through a yellow-green stage with mahogany-colored spots appearing on the skin as the fruit ripens further. The fully mature fruit is entirely red. Shortly after becoming fully red, the fruit begins to soften and wrinkle. The fruit can be eaten after it becomes wrinkled, but most people prefer them during the interval between the yellow-green stage and the full red stage. At this stage the flesh is crisp and sweet, reminiscent of an apple. Under dry conditions jujubes lose moisture, shrivel and become spongy inside. Tests in Russia indicate a very high vitamin C content. The fruit has been used medicinally for millennia by many cultures. One of its most popular uses is as a tea for sore throat CULTURE Location: Jujubes should be given a warm, sunny location, but are otherwise relatively undemanding. Given adequate heat and sun, the trees will thrive without any special care. They should not be planted in the shade of other trees Soils: Jujubes tolerate many types of soils, but prefer a sandy, well-drained soils and do less well in heavy, poorly drained soil. They are able to grow in soils with high salinity or high alkalinity. Irrigation: One of the outstanding qualities of the jujube tree are its tolerance of drought conditions. Regular watering, though, is important to assure a quality fruit crop. Fertilization: Fertilizer requirements have not been studied, but jujubes appear to do well with little or no fertilization. Light broadcast applications of a balanced fertilizer such as 8-8-8 NPK at two-month intervals during the growing season would probably speed growth. Do not fertilize until the newly planted tree has several months to get established. Pruning: Unpruned trees produce as well as trees that have been pruned. Extensive winter pruning, however, will keep the plants in better health and produce more easily obtainable fruit. Propagation: Most Chinese cultivars in the U.S. are grafted or budded onto a thorny rootstalk which produces many suckers from the roots. There is evidence that jujube cultivars will root on hard or soft wood cuttings. However, successes have been limited to date with this process of plant reproduction. Jujubes also can be propagated from seed, although they do not come true. Most jujube cultivars produce fruit without cross-pollination, but seeds from such self-pollination are usually not viable (such as from the Li or Lang cultivars) Jujubes should be set out 10 to 15 feet apart since they require high light intensities for good production. Upon setting out new, bare root trees, top the plant to 3 or 4 feet and remove all side branches to leave only a whip. New, stronger branches will emerge from each bud just below the point where the old branches were pruned. Pests and diseases: The Chinese jujube appears to have no serious disease, insect, or nematode pests in the U.S., hence, no spraying is necessary. Only the pocket gopher has shown a liking for the roots. One disease, witches broom, is prevalent in China and Korea and could be destructive to a new industry if allowed to enter into non-endemic areas. Harvest: The crop ripens non-simultaneously, and fruit can be picked for several weeks from a single tree. If picked green, jujubes will not ripen. Ripe fruits may be stored at room temperature for about a week.The fruit may be eaten fresh, dried or candied. Fresh fruit is much prized by certain cultures and is easily sold in Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Indian markets. Tree dried fruit stores indefinitely and may have good marketing potential as it dries on the tree without the use of a sulfur preservative. SELECTED RECIPES Jujube Cake * 1 cup sugar * 1/2 cup butter * 2 cups dried, minced jujube * 1 cup water Bring these to a boil then set aside to cool * 2 cups wheat flour * 1 teaspoonful soda * 1/2 teaspoonful salt Sift these together then add to the above mixture. Bake at 325° F Candied Jujubes Wash about 3 pounds dried jujubes; drain and prick each several times with a fork. In a kettle bring to a boil 5 cups water, 5-1/2 cups sugar, and 1 tablespoon corn starch. Add the jujubes and simmer, uncovered, stirring occasionally, for 30 minutes. Cool, cover, and chill overnight. The next day bring syrup and jujubes to a boil and simmer, uncovered, 30 minutes. With a slotted spoon lift jujubes from syrup and place slightly apart on rimmed pans. Dry in oven, or in sun for about 2 to 3 days. Check fruit frequently and turn fruit occasionally until the jujubes are like the dates ones sees in the market. Jujube Syrup Boil syrup remaining from the Candied Jujubes, uncovered, until reduced to about 2 cups. Use over pancakes and waffles. Store in the refrigerator. Other uses: Substitute the dried jujube wherever recipes call for raisins or dates. Dried jujubes are a wonderful snack that can be prepared without the use of any preservative as is so commonly needed for other dried fruits. FURTHER READING * Reich, Lee. Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1991. pp 139-146.

Jackfruit

2009-01-22T12:07:00.000-08:00

JACKFRUIT Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae Common Names: Jackfruit, Jakfruit, Jaca, Nangka. Related Species: Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), Breadnut (A. altilis 'Seminifera'), Champedak (A. integer), Lakoocha (A. lakoocha), Marang (A. odoratissimus). Distant affinity: Figs (Ficus spp.), Mulberries (Morus spp.), African Breadfruit (Treculia african). Origin: The jackfruit is believed indigenous to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of India. It spread early on to other parts of India, southeast Asia, the East Indies and ultimately the Philippines. It is often planted in central and eastern Africa and is fairly popular in Brazil and Surinam. Adaptation: Jackfruit is adapted to humid tropical and near-tropical climates. Mature trees have survived temperatures of about 27° F in southern Florida, but these were frozen to large limbs. Young trees are likely to be killed at temperatures below 32° F. Unlike its relative, the breadfruit, the jackfruit is not injured by cool weather several degrees above freezing. There are only a dozen or so bearing jackfruit trees today in southern Florida, and these are valued mainly as curiosities. There are also several trees planted in the Asian exhibit at the San Diego Zoo. What they will do or how high they will grow remains a question. The tree is too large to make a suitable container-grown plant. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The jackfruit tree is handsome and stately. In the tropics it grows to an enormous size, like a large eastern oak. In California it is very doubtful that it would ever approach this size. All parts contain a sticky, white latex. Foliage: The leaves are oblong, oval, or elliptic in form, 4 to 6 inches in length, leathery, glossy, and deep green in color. Juvenile leaves are lobed. Flowers: Male and female flowers are borne in separate flower-heads. Male flower-heads are on new wood among the leaves or above the female. They are swollen, oblong, from an inch to four inches long and up to an inch wide at the widest part. They are pale green at first, then darken. When mature the head is covered with yellow pollen that falls rapidly after flowering. The female heads appear on short, stout twigs that emerge from the trunk and large branches, or even from the soil-covered base of very old trees. They look like the male heads but without pollen, and soon begins to swell. The stalks of both male and female flower-heads are encircled by a small green ring. Fruit: Jackfruit is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world, reaching 80 pounds in weight and up to 36 inches long and 20 inches in diameter. The exterior of the compound fruit is green or yellow when ripe. The interior consists of large edible bulbs of yellow, banana-flavored flesh that encloses a smooth, oval, light-brown seed. The seed is 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches long and 1/2 to 3/4 inches thick and is white and crisp within. There may be 100 or up to 500 seeds in a single fruit, which are viable for no more than three or four days. When fully ripe, the unopened jackfruit emits a strong disagreeable odor, resembling that of decayed onions, while the pulp of the opened fruit smells of pineapple and banana. There are two main varieties. In one, the fruits have small, fibrous, soft, mushy, but very sweet carpels with a texture somewhat akin to a raw oysters. The other variety is crisp and almost crunchy though not quite as sweet. This form is the more important commercially and is more palatable to western tastes. CULTURE Location: The jackfruit tree should have a well-drained, frost-free location that is sunny and warm. Soil: The jackfruit flourishes in rich, deep soil of medium or open texture. Planting on top of an old compost heap would be ideal. The faster one can force a tropical plant to grow, the better the chance of keeping it alive. The tree needs the best drainage and cannot tolerate "wet feet". Irrigation: The tree will not tolerate drought. Water frequently during warm months and warm periods in cooler months. Less water is necessary during colder weather. Fertilization: The jackfruit's requirements are not known, but frequent, weak solutions of all-purpose fertilizer will speed the plant's growth without causing burn. In the regions where it is commonly grown, it succeeds without much care from man, the sole necessity being abundant moisture. Frost protection: Although mature jackfruit trees will take several degrees of frost, it is prudent to provide young plants with overhead protection if possible and plant them on the south side of a wall or building. Small plants should be given complete protection with a covering on cold nights and even a light bulb if possible. Propagation:Propagation is usually by seeds, which can be kept no longer than a month before planting. Germination requires 3 to 8 weeks. The seedlings should be moved when no more than 4 leaves have appeared. A more advanced seedling, with its long and delicate tap root is very difficult to transplant successfully. Cutting-grown plants and grafted seedlings are possible. Air-layering is common in India. Pruning: Little or no pruning is required other than to remove any dead branches from the interior of the tree, so that sufficient light is obtained for the developing fruit. Pests and diseases: A variety of pests and diseases afflict the jackfruit tree and fruit regions where it is commonly grown. In California the white fly is a minor pest. Harvest: Jackfruits mature 3 to 8 months from flowering. When mature, there is usually a change of fruit color from light green to yellow-brown. Spines, closely spaced, yield to moderate pressure, and there is a dull, hollow sound when the fruit is tapped. After ripening, they turn brown and deteriorate rather quickly. Cold storage trials indicate that ripe fruits can be kept for 3 to 6 weeks at 52° to 55° F and relative humidity of 85% to 95%. Immature fruit is boiled, fried, or roasted. Chunks are cooked in lightly salted water until tender and then served. The only handicap is copious gummy latex which accumulates on utensils and hands unless they are first rubbed with cooking oil. The seeds can also be boiled or roasted and eaten similar to chestnuts. In Southeast Asia dried slices of unripe jackfruit are sold in the markets. The ripe bulbs, fermented and then distilled, produce a potent liquor. FURTHER READING * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 58-63. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 414-419 * Tankard, Glenn. Tropical Fruit: an Australian Guide to Growing and Using Exotic Fruits. Viking O'Neil. 1987. pp. 52-53.

Jaboticaba

2009-01-22T12:05:00.000-08:00

JABOTICABA Myrciaria spp. Myrtaceae Common Names: Jaboticaba, Jabuticaba, Guaperu, Guapuru, Hivapuru, Sabara, Ybapuru Species: Myrciaria cauliflora Berg., M. jaboticaba Berg., M. tenella Berg., M. trunciflora Berg. Related Species: Guavaberry, Rumberry (Myrciaria floribunda), Yellow Jaboticaba (M. glomerata), Camu-camu (M. paraensis). Blue Grape (M. vexator). Distant affinity: Eugenias (Eugenia spp.), Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana), Guavas (Psidium spp.). Origin: All four of the jaboticaba species are native to the Minas Gerais region of Brazil. Some are also indigenous to other parts of Brazil, as well as areas in Bolivia, Paraguay, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and Peru. In Brazil jaboticabas are cultivated from the southern city of Rio Grande to Bahia, and from the seacoast to Goyaz and Matto Grosso in the west. It was introduced into California (at Santa Barbara) about 1904. Adaptation: In Brazil jaboticabas grow from sea-level to elevations of more than 3,000 ft. Different plants vary markedly in how much frost they can take without severe damage, probably reflecting the species that a given plant belongs to. Some plants can take 24° F or lower and survive; others are damaged at 27° F. In 1917, a young tree at Brooksville, Florida survived a temperature drop to 18° F. with only the foliage and branches killed back. In California jaboticabas have been successfully grown in San Diego, Spring Valley, Bostonia, Encinitas, South Los Angeles and as far north as the San Jose and San Francisco Bay areas. The plant makes a suitable container specimen. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The jaboticaba is a slow growing large shrub or small, bushy tree. It reaches a height of 10 - 15 feet in California and 12 - 45 feet in Brazil, depending on the species. The trees are profusely branched, beginning close to the ground and slanting upward and outward so that the dense, rounded crown may attain an ultimate spread as wide as it is tall. The thin, beige to reddish bark flakes off much like that of the guava. The jaboticaba makes an attractive landscape plant. Foliage: The evergreen, opposite leaves are lanceolate to elliptic, 1 - 4 inches in length and 1/2 - 3/4 inch wide. In color they are a glossy dark green with a leathery texture. The size, shape and texture varies somewhat from one species to another. Flowers: The small yellow-white flowers dramatically emerge from the multiple trunks, limbs and large branches in groups of four. It has been reported from Brazil that solitary jaboticaba trees bear poorly compared with those planted in groups, which indicates that cross-pollination enhances productivity. Fruits: Jaboticaba fruit is grape-like in appearance and texture but with a thicker, tougher skin. Most California fruit is dark purple to almost black in color. Averages size is one inch in diameter but can run from 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches, depending on species and variety. The gelatinous whitish pulp contains from one to four small seeds and has a pleasant, subacid flavor markedly similar to certain muscadine grapes. The skin has a slight resinous flavor that is not objectionable. Fruit may be produced singly or in clusters from the ground up all over the trunk and main branches, and the plant may fruit up to five times per year. Fresh fruit is delicious eaten out-of-hand and can be made into jellies, jams and wine. The skin is high in tannin and should not be consumed in large quantities over a long period of time. CULTURE Location: Jaboticaba trees are will take full sun or some shade and are small enough fit into many parts of the garden landscape. They are fairly wind tolerant but do not like salty sea air. Small, young trees do best with some protection. Soil: Jaboticabas grow and fruit best in rich deep soil with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. Although it is not well adapted to alkaline soils, it may be grown successfully by mulching and applying necessary nutrient sprays containing iron. The tree is not tolerant of salty or poorly drained soil. It has grown and borne well on sand in Central Florida. Fertilization: For young plants half ratio fertilizer at monthly intervals will speed the plant's very slow growth rate. Any well-balanced fertilizer applied three times per year will keep the plant healthy. Because of its shallow root system, it is suggested that a series of small holes be dug and filled with organic material around the plant's base. The organic material can contain a balanced fertilizer which will be released during irrigation. Irrigation: Water should be supplied as needed to maintain good soil moisture and prevent wilting, but constant flooding is undesirable. As the root system is somewhat shallow, irrigation is usually required when the upper inch or two of soil become dry. Pruning: Pruning of jaboticabas is not usually needed, but when pruned as a hedge, the fruit is not destroyed since it is formed only on the inner branches and trunk. Frost Protection: Although Jaboticabas can tolerate a few degrees of frost, they do best under frost-free conditions. In areas where frost may be a problem, providing them with some overhead protection or planting them next to a wall or a building may be sufficient. The smallish plants are also fairly easy to cover during cold snaps by placing carpeting, plastic sheeting, etc. over a frame around them. Potted specimens can be moved to a frost-secure area. Propagation: Most seeds are polyembryonic, producing a plant that is true or close to the parent plant. The seeds germinate in about one month. A suggested potting mixture is 2 parts peat, 2 parts coarse sand and 1 part coarse perlite, wood shavings or compost. Selected strains can be reproduced by inarching (approach grafting) or air-layering. Budding is not easily accomplished because of the thinness of the bark and the hardness of the of the wood. Veneer or side grafts are fairly successful. The grafted plant will fruit considerably earlier than a seedling. One may expect a grafted plant to produce fruit within three years, It can take from 8 to 15 years for a seedling to mature into a fruiting tree. It is this very slow growth that has kept this plant from becoming as popular as it deserves to be. Grafting older trees over to a different variety is inadvisable because it is the trunk and inner branches which produce the fruit. One would have to cut the tree back to a one-inch stump in order to change its fruiting nature. When planting a jaboticaba, the crown (uppermost) roots should be 2 to 3 inches higher than the surrounding soil levels to provide water runoff. Peat, compost or rotted manure may be mixed with the soil from the planting hole to improve it. The soil should be a well-aerated mixture. Pests and diseases: The fruit and flowers of some varieties are susceptible to a fungus caused rust during wet periods. Many flowers may desiccate during dry periods. Birds, raccoons and opossums are all attracted to fruiting trees. Deer will sometimes browse on the new foliage, but jaboticaba roots are not particularly attractive to gophers. Harvest: Jaboticaba fruits are ready to harvest when they have developed a full color and are somewhat soft like a ripe grape. They are mostly eaten out-of-hand in South America. By squeezing the fruit between the thumb and forefinger, one can cause the skin to split and the pulp to slip into the mouth. The peeled fruits are often used for making jelly and marmalade, with the addition of pectin. Jaboticaba wine is made to a limited extent in Brazil. Commercial Potential: Jaboticabas are a significant commercial fruit in Brazil and to a limited extent in other parts of South America where they thrive. They are a very tasty fresh fruit, and if they were more plentiful and were properly promoted, they could have a commercial future in this country. Their relative frost sensitivity combined with their slowness to fruit from seedlings is a major drawback to commercial success. FURTHER READING * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 371-374. * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. p. 69. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 299-302.

Gooseberry

2009-01-22T12:02:00.000-08:00

GOOSEBERRY Ribes spp. Saxifragaceae Common Names: Gooseberry (English), Stachelbeere (German), Groseille a Maquereaux (French), Uva Spina (Italian), Stekbes (Flemish). Species: American Gooseberry (Ribes hirtellum), European Gooseberry (R. grossularia). Related Species: Currant (Ribes rubrum, R. petraeum, R. sativum), Black Currant (R. nigrum, R. ussuriense), Buffalo Currant (R. aureum). Origin: Gooseberries are derived mostly from two species: the European gooseberry (Ribes grossularia), native to the Caucasus Mountains and North Africa; and the American gooseberry (R. hirtellum), native to northeastern and north-central United States and adjacent parts of Canada. So-called European cultivars are pure species, but virtually all so-call American cultivars also have European genes. Adaptation: Gooseberries grow best in summer humid, cool regions with great winter chilling. In California they are fairly productive in the coolest parts of the San Francisco Bay Area, the outer Coast Ranges and coastal northern California. They are probably not worth trying in southern California. except at high elevations. With proper attention gooseberries can be grown in containers. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: Gooseberries are deciduous shrubs, fast growing under optimum conditions to 3 feet tall and 6 feet wide. The plant is suitable for training as a standard. American types have weeping stems that will root wherever they touch the ground and can be invasive. Annual growth is in a single flush in spring. The roots are superficial, fine and easily damaged by frequent cultivation. Foliage: The buds perk up early in the spring, dotting the stems with green when most other plants are still tawny. The leaves are alternate, single, deeply lobed, and glossy dark green (European types), or pale to gray-green and sometimes finely pubescent (American types). The stems are thin, becoming woody, with a large thorn at each axil. American gooseberry stems are densely bristly, with one or more additional thorns at each axil. Leaf size and number are reduced under heat or light stress, and are easily burned by intense sunlight. Plants that have been subject to drought may make a new growth flush after deep irrigation. If the roots are lost, regrowth will wait until the following spring. Flowers: The inconspicuous flowers, green with pink flushed petals, open in early spring. They are borne laterally on one-year old wood and on short spurs of older wood. The flowers are self-fertile and pollinated by wind and insects, including bees. Each flower bud opens to yield from one to four flowers, depending on cultivar. Fruit: The fruit, borne singly or in pairs at the axils, is a berry with many minute seeds at the center. A gooseberry may be green, white (gray-green), yellow, or shades of red from pink to purple to almost black. Fruits of the European gooseberry may be very large, like a small plum, but are usually 1 inch long, less in width. American gooseberry fruits are smaller (to 1/2 inch), perfectly round, all becoming pink to wine-red at maturity. Skin color is most intense in full sunlight. Berries generally drop when overripe. The fruit has a flavor all its own, the best dessert cultivars as luscious as the best apple, strawberry or grape. CULTURE Location: Gooseberries like morning sun, afternoon part-shade and buoyant air circulation. They are most productive in full sunlight but the leaves sunburn easily under California conditions. They can be grown in the high shade of fruit trees such as persimmon or on the north side of buildings. American gooseberry are much more sun tolerant. Plants collapse quickly when soil or air temperature exceeds 85° F. Soil: Gooseberry plants are less finicky about soil acidity than most other small fruits, and tolerate a wide range of soils, except those that are waterlogged. Where summers are hot, bushes will grow better and produce better fruit in heavier soils, which retain more moisture and stay cooler. A thick mulch of some organic material also helps keep the soil cool. Sandy soils are less suitable for gooseberries because they dry out too fast. Irrigation: With their fibrous, shallow roots gooseberries are ideal for drip system. Keep the plants watered all season, since they will not regenerate buds or leaves lost from drought stress. Plants stressed for water are susceptible to mildew. Fertilization: Gooseberries have a high requirement for potassium and a moderate need for nitrogen, although excessive amounts of nitrogen promote disease, especially mildew. Between four and eight ounces of actual nitrogen per square yard strikes a good balance between growth and disease tolerance. The symptom of potassium deficiency is scorching of leaf margins. Deficiency can be avoided with an annual dressing of half an ounce of potassium per square yard. Gooseberry plants also have a fairly high requirement for magnesium, so if the soil is very acidic and needs lime, use dolomitic limestone, which supplies magnesium as well as calcium. Pruning: A gooseberry bush is usually grown on a permanent short "leg" of about six inches, from which the bush is continually renewed with new shoots arising at or near ground level. Allow stems to grow for 4-5 years, then selectively remove oldest stems to make room for new shoots. Snap off any branches that form along or below the six-inch leg. Thorns make harvest tedious, so pruning is done to open up the bush and make picking easier. The plants may be grown as standards or cordons, but this requires a lot of care and the fruit often sunburns. Propagation: The ease with which gooseberries propagate from cuttings depends on the cultivar. Generally, American cultivars are easier to root than are European cultivars. Take hardwood cutting in early fall, even before all the leaves have dropped. The presence of a few leaves actually enhances rooting. Make the cuttings about a foot long, but do not include tip growth, dip the base in hormone and pot in ordinary soil. Keep in part shade for the first year. Tip layering is a surer method of propagation, though a single bush furnishes far fewer layers than cuttings. If intended for training as standards or cordons, strip all buds off, cutting below the soil line. Seeds require moist stratification, just above freezing, for three to four months. The plants commence bearing in 5 years from seed and 2 years from cuttings. Pests and Diseases: Aphids commonly attack young leaves, distorting them. Spider mites are common in summer; spray immediately after harvest and thereafter on a regular schedule. The clear-winged borer lays its eggs on stems in April. The larvae hatch and bore into the central pith down to soil line and emerge to pupate in the fall. An infestation is usually detected only after the stem wilts and dies. Borers will spread and generally causes loss of whole planting without quick control. Cut out affected stems, search for others and spray. The gooseberry sawfly is present in the Pacific Northwest but has not yet been detected in California. Its small green worms will hollow out the berries, leaving an empty husk. Ribes species are host for White Pine blister rust, which causes few problems for gooseberry, but is lethal for 5-needle pines, including California natives such as Western Pine (Pinus monticola) and Sugar Pine (P. lambertiana). Gooseberries are banned in counties where these pines are grown for lumber. Botrytis and Anthracnose can cause rot of leaves and loss of young growth, particularly stems lying on the ground or splashed during irrigation. Gooseberry mildew is a common problem, affecting both European and American types. It is worst in coastal fog, on drought-stressed plants, or where irrigation is by overhead sprinkling. Keep plants turgid, never stressed for water between irrigations. Benomyl spray before flowering and after harvest should control it. Roots are susceptible to both Oak Root fungus (Armillaria mellea) and Phytophthora. Harvest: Average yield from one gooseberry bush is between eight and ten pounds of fruit. Gooseberries used for culinary purposes such as tarts, etc. are usually picked underripe. A classic gooseberry concoction is a fool, made by folding cream into the stewed fruit. For dessert purposes, however, the fruit must be fully ripe. FURTHER READING * Card, F.W. Bush Fruits. New York, Macmillan, 1907. * The International Ribes Association. The Ribes Reporter, Vols. 1 - present. * Oldham, C.H.. The Cultivation of Berried Fruits. London, Crosby Lockwood & Son, 1946. * Reich, Lee. Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1991. pp. 15-33. * Roe, E.P. Success With Small Fruits. New York, Collier, 1920.

Fig

2009-01-22T12:00:00.001-08:00

FIG Ficus carica L. Moraceae Common Names: Fig (English), Higo (Spanish), Figue (French), Feige (German), Fico (Italian). Related Species: Cluster fig (Ficus racemosa), Sycomore Fig (Ficus sycomorus). Distant Affinity: Mulberry (Morus spp.); Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis Fosb.); Jakfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.); Che; Chinese Mulberry (Cudrania tricuspidata). Origin: The fig is believed to be indigenous to western Asia and to have been distributed by man throughout the Mediterranean area. Remnants of figs have been found in excavations of sites traced to at least 5,000 B.C. Adaptation: The fig grows best and produces the best quality fruit in Mediterranean and dryer warm-temperate climates. Rains during fruit development and ripening can cause the fruits to split. With extra care figs will also grow in wetter, cooler areas. Diseases limit utility in tropical climates. Fully dormant trees are hardy to 12° - 15° F, but plants in active growth can be damaged at 30° F. Fig plants killed to the ground will often resprout from the roots. Only the hardiest cultivars should be attempted in areas such as the Willamette Valley, the Sierra Nevada and high desert. However, all cultivars are suitable elsewhere in California. Chilling requirements for the fig are less than 300 hours. In containers figs are eye-catching specimens inside or outdoors. It is best to choose a slow-growing cultivar. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The fig is a picturesque deciduous tree, to 50 ft tall, but more typically to a height of 10 - 30 ft. Their branches are muscular and twisting, spreading wider than they are tall. Fig wood is weak and decays rapidly. The trunk often bears large nodal tumors, where branches have been shed or removed. The twigs are terete and pithy rather than woody. The sap contains copious milky latex that is irritating to human skin. Fig trees often grow as a multiple-branched shrub, especially where subjected to frequent frost damage. They may be espaliered, but only where roots may be restricted, as in containers. Foliage: Fig leaves are bright green, single, alternate and large (to 1 ft length). They are more or less deeply lobed with 1 - 5 sinuses, rough hairy on the upper surface and soft hairy on the underside. In summer their foliage lends a beautiful tropical feeling. Flowers: The tiny flowers of the fig are out of sight, clustered inside the green "fruits", technically a synconium. Pollinating insects gain access to the flowers through an opening at the apex of the synconium. In the case of the common fig the flowers are all female and need no pollination. There are 3 other types, the caprifig which has male and female flowers requiring visits by a tiny wasp, Blastophaga grossorum; the Smyrna fig, needing cross-pollination by caprifigs in order to develop normally; and the San Pedro fig which is intermediate, its first crop independent like the common fig, its second crop dependent on pollination. Fruits: The common fig bears a first crop, called the breba crop, in the spring on last season's growth. The second crop is borne in the fall on the new growth and is known as the main crop. In cold climates the breba crop is often destroyed by spring frosts. The matured "fruit" has a tough peel (pure green, green suffused with brown, brown or purple), often cracking upon ripeness, and exposing the pulp beneath. The interior is a white inner rind containing a seed mass bound with jelly-like flesh. The edible seeds are numerous and generally hollow, unless pollinated. Pollinated seeds provide the characteristic nutty taste of dried figs. CULTURE Location: Figs require full sun all day to ripen palatable fruits. Trees become enormous, and will shade out anything growing beneath. Repeated pruning to control size causes loss of crop. The succulent trunk and branches are unusually sensitive to heat and sun damage, and should be whitewashed if particularly exposed. Roots are greedy, traveling far beyond the tree canopy. Figs are not a fruit tree for small places. The fine roots that invade garden beds, however, may be cut without loss to the tree. In areas with short (less than 120 days between frosts), cool summers, espalier trees against a south-facing, light-colored wall to take advantage of the reflected heat. In coastal climates, grow in the warmest location, against a sunny wall or in a heat trap. For container grown plants, replace most of the soil in the tub every three years and keep the sides of the tub shaded to prevent overheating in sunlight. Irrigation: Young fig tees should be watered regularly until fully established. In dry western climates, water mature trees deeply at least every one or two weeks. Desert gardeners may have to water more frequently. Mulch the soil around the trees to conserve moisture. If a tree is not getting enough water, the leaves will turn yellow and drop. Also, drought-stressed trees will not produce fruit and are more susceptible to nematode damage. Recently planted trees are particularly susceptible to water deficits, often runt out, and die. Pruning: Fig trees are productive with or without heavy pruning. It is essential only during the initial years. Trees should be trained according to use of fruit, such as a low crown for fresh-market figs. Since the crop is borne on terminals of previous year's wood, once the tree form is established, avoid heavy winter pruning, which causes loss of the following year's crop. It is better to prune immediately after the main crop is harvested, or with late-ripening cultivars, summer prune half the branches and prune the remainder the following summer. If radical pruning is done, whitewash the entire tree. Fertilization: Regular fertilizing of figs is usually necessary only for potted trees or when they are grown on sands. Excess nitrogen encourages rank growth at the expense of fruit production, and the fruit that is produced often ripens improperly, if at all. As a general rule, fertilize fig trees if the branches grew less than a foot the previous year. Apply a total of 1/2 - 1 pound of actual nitrogen, divided into three or four applications beginning in late winter or early spring and ending in July. Frost Protection: In borderline climates, figs can be grown out of doors if they are given frost protection. Brown Turkey, Brunswick and Blue Celeste cultivars are some of the best choices. Plant against a wall or structure which provides some heat by radiation. Or grow as a bush, pruning the trunk to near ground level at the end of the second year. Allow several stems to replace the trunk, and grow as you would a lilac. For further protection, erect a frame over the plant, covering and surrounding it with heavy carpet in winter. Keep the roots as dry as possible during winter, raising a berm to exclude melting snows during thaws. In northern climates, the fig is best grown as a tub or pot plant that can be brought into a warm location in winter and taken out again in spring. Dormant buds are more susceptible to freezing than wood. Freezing may also create a trunk without live buds; regrowth is possible only from roots. Propagation: Fig plants are usual propagated by cuttings. Select foot-long pieces of dormant wood, less than 1 inch diameter, with two-year-old wood at base. One-year twigs with a heel of two-year branch at the base may also be used. Dip the cuttings in a rooting hormone and allow them to callus one week in a moist place at 50-60° F. Summer cuttings may also be made, but they do best if defoliated and winterized in a refrigeration for 2-3 weeks before potting. Leafy shoots require a mist bed. Particularly rare cultivars may be propagated on rootstocks, or older trees, topworked by whip, cleft or crown grafting, or chip or patch budding. Rooted cuttings should be planted in 22 to 30 feet squares, depending upon the capacity of the soil and the ultimate size of the tree. Keep roots moist until planted. Never transplant or disturb a young tree while it is starting new growth in spring, as this is likely to to kill it. Cut the tree back to 2 ft high upon planting and whitewash the trunk. Pests and Diseases: Fig tree roots are a favorite food of gophers, who can easily kill a large plant. One passive method of control is to plant the tree in a large aviary wire basket. Deer are not particularly attracted to figs, but birds can cause a lot of damage to the fruit. Nematodes, particularly in sandy soils, attack roots, forming galls and stunting the trees. Mitadulid and Carpophilus dried fruit beetles can enter ripening fruit through the eye and cause damage by introducing fungi and rots. They frequently breed in fallen citrus fruits. Keep a clean orchard by destroy fallen fruits and do not grow near citrus trees. Euryphid mites cause little damage but are carriers of mosaic virus from infected to clean trees. Mosaic virus, formerly considered benign, probably causes crop reduction. Symptoms resemble potassium deficiency--leaves are marbled with yellow spots, and the veins are light colored. Symptoms are often not apparent until the tree is older or when it becomes heat or water-stressed. Do not purchase infected trees and isolate those which show symptoms. Botrytis causes a blast of branch terminals, which dry out and turn charcoal-like. The attack usually starts from half-grown fruits damaged by the first frost of winter, then enters the main stem as a reddish expanding necrotic zone. The infection is generally self-controlling and stops in the spring. It can be prevented by removing mummies and frost damaged fruits as soon as they are observed. Fig canker is a bacterium which enters the trunk at damaged zones, causing necrosis and girdling and loss of branches. It usually starts at sunburned areas, so it is important to keep exposed branches whitewashed. Rhyzopus smut attacks ripened fruits on the tree, causing charcoal black coating inside the fruit, and is worst on cultivars with large, open eyes. Most ripe fruit losses are from Endosepsis (Fusarium) and Aspergillus rot which is introduced by insects, even pollinating wasps. The fruit appears to burst, or a ropy, mucus-like exudate drains from the eye, rendering the fruit are inedible. The best control is to destroy all crop for one year, apply diazinon granules beneath trees to eliminate insect vectors, and destroy adjacent wild trees. Penicillium fungus will attack dried fruits in storage but can be controlled by keeping them dry, or sulfuring before storage. Harvest: Figs must be allowed to ripen fully on the tree before they are picked. They will not ripen if picked when immature. A ripe fruit will be slightly soft and starting to bend at the neck. Harvest the fruit gently to avoid bruising. Fresh figs do not keep well and can be stored in the refrigerator for only 2 - 3 days. Some fig varieties are delicious when dried. They take 4 - 5 days to dry in the sun and 10 -12 hours in a dehydrator. Dried figs can be stored for six to eight months. Commercial potential: Because of losses in transport and short shelf life, figs are a high-value fruits of limited demand. The best outlet is direct sale at roadside or farmers markets, but do not permit handling of the fruit. Figs for shipping are collected daily just before they reach the fully ripe stage, but yield to a soft pressure, usually indicated by small cracks in the skin. They should be immediately refrigerated. For commerce, choose a cultivar that parts readily from the branch and does not tear the neck. FURTHER READING * Condit. I. J. The Fig. Waltham, Mass., Chronica Botanica Co., 1947. * Condit, I. J. Fig Culture in California. Extension Service Circular 77, 1933. * Condit, I. J. Fig Varieties: A Monograph. Hilgardia 23:11 (Feb 1955). * Eisen, G. The Fig - Its History, Culture and Curing. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 9 . 1901. * Eisen, G. and F. S. Earle. Fig Culture. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 5, 1897. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 47-50. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 46-48. * Schurrie, H. The Fig. Timber Press Horticultural Reviews 12:409 (1990) * Starnes, H. N. The Fig in Georgia. Georgia Experiment Station Bulletin 61, 1903. * Starnes, H. N. and J. F, Monroe. The Fig in Georgia. (2nd Report). Georgia Experiment Station Bulletin 77.

Feijoa

2009-01-22T11:58:00.000-08:00

FEIJOA Feijoa sellowiana O. Myrtaceae Common Names: Feijoa, Pineapple Guava, Guavasteen. Related Species: In more recent times Feijoa sellowiana has been renamed Acca sellowiana, but most sources still use the older name. Distant affinity: Eugenias (Eugenia spp.), Guavas (Psidium spp.), Jaboticaba (Myrciaria spp.). Origin: The feijoa is native to extreme southern Brazil, northern Argentina, western Paraguay and Uruguay where it is common in the mountains. Adaptation: Feijoas prefer cool winters and moderate summers (80° to 90° F), and are generally adapted to areas where temperatures stay above 15° F. Flower production is poor in areas with fewer than 50 hours of chilling. The flavor of the fruit is much better in cool than in warm regions. Even thought the plants are relatively hardy, sudden fall frosts can damage ripening fruit and late spring frosts can destroy blossoms. Spring frost damage is most likely in mild-winter areas, where the plants are not completely hardened off and respond to warm spells by blooming early. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The feijoa is a slow-growing evergreen shrub that can reach 15 ft. high and 15 ft. wide. The bark is pale gray and the spreading branches are swollen at the nodes and white-hairy when young. In addition to the fruit it provides, the shrub also doubles handsomely as a landscape specimen. When planted close together, the shrubs make a nice hedge, screen, or windbreak. Feijoas can also be espaliered or trained as a small tree (20 to 25 ft. tall) with one or more trunks. The wood is dense, hard, and brittle. Foliage: The evergreen, thick, leathery leaves of the feijoa are opposite, short-petioled and bluntly elliptical. In size they range from 1 to 2-1/2 inches long and 5/8 to 1 inch wide. The leaves are smooth soft green on top and silvery underneath, flashing nicely in a gentle breeze. Flowers: The 1 inch showy, bisexual flowers, borne singly or in a cluster, have long, bright red stamens topped with large grains of yellow pollen. Flowers appear late, from May through June. Each flower contains four to six fleshy flower petals that are white tinged with purple on the inside. These petals are mildly sweet and edible and can make a refreshing addition to spring salads. Birds eating the petals pollinate the flower. It has been said that feijoa pollen is transferred by birds that are attracted to and eat the flowers, but bees are the chief pollinators. Most flowers pollinated with compatible pollen show 60 to 90% fruit set. Hand pollination is nearly 100% effective. Two or more bushes should be planted together for cross-pollination unless the cultivar is known to be self-compatible. Poor bearing is usually the result of inadequate pollination. Fruits: The fruits range from 3/4 to 3-1/2 inches long and vary in shape from round to elongated pear shape, with the persistent calyx segments adhering to the apex. The waxy skin is dull blue-green to blue or grayish green, sometimes with a red or orange blush. Skin texture varies from smooth to rough and pebbly and is 3/16 to 5/8 inch thick. The fruit emits a strong long-lasting perfume, even before it is fully ripe. The thick, white, granular, watery flesh and the translucent central pulp enclosing the seeds are sweet or subacid, suggesting a combination of pineapple and guava or pineapple and strawberry, often with overtones of winter green or spearmint. There are usually 20 - 40, occasionally more, very small, oblong seeds hardly noticeable when the fruit is eaten. CULTURE Location: To protect the fruit from sunburn and other adverse effects of high temperature, choose a plant site away from hot, reflected sun. The feijoa can tolerate partial shade and slight exposure to salt spray. They also make an excellent foundation planting, either singly or as an informal hedge. Soil: Feijoas will grow in a wide variety of soils. The best harvests, however, come from plants growing in well-drained soil with a pH between 5.5 and 7.0. They are fairly salt tolerant, but salinity slows growth and reduces yields. Irrigation: Foundation plantings of feijoas in summer dry California have survived for several years without supplemental water. Lack of water, however, will cause the fruit to drop. For quality harvests, water deeply on a regular basis, especially during flowering and fruit periods, and mulch the soil around the plants to protect the shallow roots. Fertilization: Feijoas grow slowly and require only light applications of a complete fertilizer. A feeding of 8-8-8 NPK once every two months can speed growth. Pruning: Pruning is not required to keep plants productive, but a light pruning in the summer after fruit is harvested will encourage new growth and increase yields the following year. Thinning the plant also permits easier harvesting. When grown as a hedge, the feijoa responds well to heavy pruning or shearing, but this reduces flower and fruit production. Propagation: The feijoa grows easily from seed, but the seedlings are not always true to type. Seeds are separated by squeezing the seedy pulp into a container, covering with water, and letting the liquid stand for 4 days to ferment. The seeds are then strained out and dried before sowing. The seeds will retain viability for a year or more if kept dry. Germination takes place in 3 weeks. The plant fruits in 3 - 5 years from seed. Vegetative means are necessary to reproduce a variety. Young wood cuttings will root within two months with bottom heat and mist. Whip, tongue or veneer grafting methods are sometimes successful, as is air-layering and ground layering. Cutting-grown plants of named varieties are most desirable, because they can be trained in a variety of ways, and can be maintained as multitrunked shrubs without concern that suckers will develop into "rogue" branches. Pests and diseases: The feijoa is remarkably pest and disease-resistant. It is occasionally attacked by by black scale in California, as well as fruit flies where that is a problem. Harvest: In southern California the fruits ripen 4-1/2 to 6 months after flowers appear and in 5-1/2 to 7 months in the San Francisco area. As the fruit matures, its color changes almost imperceptibly. The best way is to allow them to fall from the tree. Giving the tree a shake and gathering the fruit from the ground every couple of days is the usual method of harvesting. To keep the fruit from bruising, place a tarp or other large cloth under the tree to catch them as they fall. Feijoas can also be picked when firm and mature and allowed to ripen at room temperature, although the quality will not be as good as tree ripened fruit. Mature fruit can be stored in the refrigerator for about a week, but after that the quality declines. Feijoas are mainly eaten fresh as a dessert or in salads, but can also be cooked in puddings, pies, etc. After peeling, the fruit should be immediately dipped into water containing fresh lemon juice to prevent the flesh from turning brown. Commercial Potential: In California the feijoa is grown in a limited way for its fruit, especially in cool coastal locations, mainly around San Francisco. There has also been a major effort in New Zealand to commercialize the feijoa. Both domestic and imported fruit can often be found in the markets, but the demand does not seem to be great. FURTHER READING * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 367-370. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 44-45.

Currant

2009-01-22T11:55:00.000-08:00

CURRANT Ribes spp. Saxifragaceae Common Names: Currant (English), Johannisbeere (German), Ribes (Danish, Swedish, Italian), Groseille (French), Bes (Flemish). The English word 'currant' has been used for this fruit only since 1550, taken from the fruit's resemblance to the dried currants of Greece, raisins made from a small seedless grape. The much older English name 'ribes' is of ancient Indo-European origin and is common to other languages. Species: Red, pink and white currants belong to three European species (Ribes rubrum, R. petraeum, R. sativum). Black currants are related to European (R. nigrum) and Asian (R. ussuriense) species. Related Species: Gooseberry (Ribes grossularia, R. hirtellum), Buffalo Currant (R. aureum), Jostaberry (R. nigrum X hirtellum). Adaptation: Currants grow best in summer humid, cool regions with great winter chilling. They are best adapted to USDA Hardiness Zones 3 through 5, although in California they are fairly productive in the coolest parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and coastal northern California. They should be considered experimental only in southern California. Currants are amendable to container culture. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: All forms of currant are deciduous shrubs, fast growing under optimum conditions. The plant is a multiple-stemmed clump, to 5 feet high and as broad, but is suitable for training as a standard. Annual growth is in a single flush in spring. The roots are superficial, fine and easily damaged by frequent cultivation. Foliage: The leaves are alternate, single, lobed and maple-like. Black currant leaves are pale green, while those of the red currant are deep blue-green. Both are easily burned by intense sunlight. Leaf size and number is reduced under water stress. Flowers: Currant flowers are borne toward the bases of one-year old stems and on spurs on older stems. They appear in early spring with new growth. Each flower bud opens to number of flowers (up to 20), joined together on a delicate, drooping 5 - 6 inch stem, called a strig. The strig length is reduced or flowering is suppressed by lack of winter chill. Individual flowers (green in the case of red currants and blush pink for black currants) are not showy, but joined together on the strig they give the bush a lacy texture. Pollination is by hoverflies and other insects. Black currant flowers also attract honeybees. Most currants have self-fertile flowers, but a few cultivars are partially self-sterile, so set more fruits with cross-pollination. To increase both fruit size and number, clip off part of the ends of the strigs while the bushes are flowering. Depending upon the cultivar, fruits ripen from 70 to 100 days after blossoming. Fruit: Fully set strigs will be a pendulous chain of small berries. The fruit is easier to pick if their strigs are long and have "handles" (clear lengths at the bases) for holding onto while harvesting. Black currants commonly ripen from the top down, encouraging birds to strip berries as they color. Modern red currant varieties have been selected for their ability to ripen all the berries on a strig at once. Berries of red, white and pink currants are translucent; black currants are matte brown-purple. The berries contain 3 - 12 minute, bony seeds. CULTURE Location: Currants like morning sun, afternoon part-shade and buoyant air circulation. They can be grown in the high shade of fruit trees such as persimmon, as well as on the north side of buildings. The leaves sunburn readily and the plants collapse quickly when the soil or air temperature exceeds 85° F. Currants can withstand ocean winds but the salt air will burn the leaves and turn them ragged. Soil: Currants are not finicky about soil but, in keeping with their proclivity for cold, prefer heavier soils richer in clay. A thick mulch of some organic material also keeps the soil cool in summer while adding humus to the soil. Sandy soils are less suitable for currants because they dry out too fast. The plants will not tolerate alkaline or salty soil. Irrigation: With their fibrous, shallow roots, currants are are ideal for drip irrigation. Keep the plants watered until the fruit is harvested. At this point they stop active growth and the watering frequency can be reduced. Plants stressed for water are susceptible to mildew. Fertilization: Apply nitrogen at an annual rate of about four ounces per square yard. With too much nitrogen the plants become more prone to disease. Potassium deficiency, evidenced by marginal scorching of the leaves is averted with about half an once of potassium to the square yard. Avoid potassium chloride, because currants are sensitive to the chloride ion. Pruning: Annual pruning increases yields and keeps plants manageable. Prune so that most fruits are borne on spurs of two- or three-year old wood. A program of pruning will maintain a continuous supply of such wood. In the winter of the plant's first season, remove at ground level all but two or three stems. The following winter again remove all but two or three that grew the previous season, at which point the bush will have two or three each of one- and two-year old stems. Continue this each season, but by the fourth winter start cutting away at their bases any stems more than three years old. Each winter also shorten long stems that have grown too scraggly. Do not prune after spring growth has commenced. Plants can be trained to a number of utilitarian and decorative forms. Propagation: Currant seeds germinate if stratified for three to four months at temperatures just above freezing. Seedlings are prolific and do not vary much from parent. Bushes grown from seed bear when two or three years old. Currants are easily propagated by hardwood cuttings of one-year old wood. Take one-foot cuttings of dormant wood in late winter, dip the base in rooting hormone and pot in ordinary soil. Cuttings will quickly root and are best kept in part shade for the first year. If the plants are to be grown as standards, strip all buds off cutting below soil line. Currants can also be grafted, but no advantage is gained. Pests and Diseases: Currants are subject to a variety of insect and disease pests. Gall mite (not reported yet in California) infests dormant buds during summer. Affected buds swell, form dried rosettes, and fail to break during following spring. Whole stem becomes blind and dies back to ground. Plant should be removed and burned immediately upon detection. Aphids commonly distort currant foliage causing red spots. Spider mites are common and also cause foliar distortion. Clear-winged borers lay their eggs on stems in late spring. The larvae hatch and bore into the stems where they remain until the following season. An infestation is usually detected only after the stem wilts and dies. Borers will spread and generally cause loss of a whole planting without quick control. Cut out affected stems, search for others and spray. The leaves are not attractive to deer. The most feared disease in black (rarely red) currant is reversion virus, and appears as weakened, barren plants with pleated leaves. The virus, which is spread by common and gall mites, is endemic in Europe but not yet known in California. There is no cure; do not import plant material from European sources. Ribes species are also host for white pine blister rust, which causes few problems for currants but is lethal for 5-needle pines, including California natives such as Western White (Pinus monticola) and Sugar Pine (P. lambertiana). Currants are banned in counties where these pines are grown for lumber. Botrytis and Anthracnose can cause rot of leaves and loss of young growth, usually stems lying on the ground or splashed during irrigation. Gooseberry mildew infects currants, especially in humid areas, but is not common in California. It is worst in coastal fog or where irrigation is by overhead sprinkling. Keep plants turgid, never water-stressed. Benomyl spray before flowering and after harvest should control it. Currant roots are susceptible to both Oak Root fungus (Armillaria) and Phytophthora. Harvest: Most cultivars hold well on the plant. For fresh eating let the berries hang for about three weeks after they color up. If the fruits are to be stored at all, they should be picked dry. To avoid damaging the fruits, pick a whole strig by its stem, taking care not to damage the spur. Yields vary greatly, depending on growing conditions and cultivar. Anywhere from three pounds to over ten pounds may be harvested from a single bush. Currants are unsurpassed for jelly, but are also good in pies and sauces, especially when mixed with fruits that have body but lack sprightliness. Currants have also been used for wine, said by some to be similar in flavor to Graves or Rhine wines. Black currants are the traditional source of the French liqueur, Cassis. White Currants An albino forms of the red currant. More versatile but less colorful than the red; fine for all culinary uses, but are of lower acidity, thus also suitable for fresh eating. The best sorts are nearly transparent. Pink Currants Pink Currants are intermediate between red and white types, in degree of pigmentation. Skin is colorless, flesh is pink. All are R. vulgare. Gloire des Sablons Origin France, ancient. Most common form of pink currant. Bush upright, not branching, productive, berries quite large but few on strig. Black Currants Black Currants have a characteristic aroma, highly esteemed by natives of northern Europe. Leaves also release the scent when rubbed. Fruit are astringent, suitable only for culinary uses. Certain Canadian cultivars (Consort, Crusader, Coronet) are R. nigrum X ussuriense hybrids, bred to resist mildew and rust, are self- and inter-sterile and of inferior flavor, are not recommended. Buffalo Currants Ribes aureum. A distant relative of the common Ribes, Buffalo Currant is probably closer to gooseberry. Native to American prairies, they are extraordinarily hardy bushes and productive. The bush resembles common Ribes, but is wider and weeping, with branch tips eventually touching the ground. It needs no pruning and stems tend to go blind, shedding dormant buds after the first year. It tolerates a wide range of soils, even alkali, and does not require much winter chill. Leaves are small, felty, gray-green and many-lobed. Flowers are profuse, showy, yellow and fragrant, resemble Forsythia in bloom. It makes a prolific production of pea-sized or larger, glossy brownish-purple, bland-flavored berries with persistent style, that resemble American gooseberry when cooked. They are palatable raw or cooked. Ripe fruits last long on the bush, often 2 months. It is adaptable to a range of climates and the only species recommended for southern California. Crandall Origin uncertain, probably Iowa, 1890s. Still the best for fruit quality. Bush rather weak, weeping, fruit hidden inside foliage, difficult to find. Jostaberry Jostaberries are hybrids of black currant and the American gooseberry, R. hirtellum, produced in Germany, 1930s-50s. They are currently a subject of commercial promotion, but performance in California is disappointing. The bush is very tall, thornless, tends not to branch and requires the space of 2 currant bushes. The foliage is glossy, larger than gooseberry, lobed, scentless and resists mildew. It survives full sunlight but requires much winter chilling. The lateral buds usually shed, leaving blind branches. Purple or brownish-red fruit are borne on lax, few-berried strigs. They are the size of small gooseberry and lacking in flavor, suitable only for experimentation. Buffalo currant produces comparable fruit more abundantly in less space and is recommended instead. New forms of Josta, backcrossed to the black currant parent, may be better than original types. FURTHER READING * Card, F.W. Bush Fruits. New York, Macmillan, 1907 * Oldham, C.H. The Cultivation of Berried Fruits. London, Crosby Lockwood & Son, 1946 * The International Ribes Association, The Ribes Reporter, Vols. 1 - present. * Reich, Lee. Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1991. pp 101-112, 1261-171. * Roe, E.P. Success With Small Fruits. New York, Collier, 1920

Cherimoya

2009-01-22T11:50:00.000-08:00

CHERIMOYA Annona cherimola Mill. Annonaceae Common Names: Cherimoya (U.S., Latin America), Custard Apple (U.K. and Commonwealth), Chirimoya, Chirimolla. Related species: Ilama (Annona diversifolia), Pond Apple (A. glabra), Manrito (A. jahnii). Mountain Soursop (A. montana), Soursop (A. muricata), Soncoya (A. purpurea), Bullock's Heart (A. reticulata), Sugar Apple (Annona squamosa), Atemoya (A. cherimola X A. squamosa). Distant affinity: Pawpaw (Asimina triloba), Biriba (Rollinia deliciosa), Wild Sweetsop (R. mucosa), Keppel Apple (Stelechocarpus burakol). Origin: The cherimoya is believed to be native to the inter-andean valleys of Ecuador, Colombia and Peru. Seeds from Mexico were planted in California (Carpinteria) in 1871. Adaptation: The cherimoya is subtropical or mild-temperate and will tolerate light frosts. Young growing tips are killed at 29° F and and mature trees are killed or severely injured at 25° F. If cherimoyas do not receive enough chilling, the trees will go dormant slowly and then experience delayed foliation. The amount of chilling needed is estimated to be between 50 and 100 hours. The tree grows well in the coastal and foothill areas of southern California, doing best at a slight elevation, 3 to 15 miles from ocean. It is worth attempting in sunny, south-facing, nearly frost-free locations from San Francisco Bay Area to Lompoc, and may survive to fruit in a very few protected Central Valley foothill locations from Chico to Arvin. Resentful of the excessive dry heat of the interior, it is not for the desert. Cherimoyas are not recommended for container culture. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The cherimoya is a fairly fairly dense, fast-growing, evergreen tree, briefly deciduous in California from February through April. The tree can reach 30 feet or more, but is fairly easily restrained. Young trees "harp," forming opposite branches as a natural espalier. These can be trained against a surface, or pruned off to form a regular free-standing trunk. Growth is in one long flush, beginning in April. The roots commence as taproot, but the slow-growing root system is rather weak, superficial, and ungreedy. Young plants need staking. Foliage: The attractive leaves are single and alternate, 2 to 8 inches long and up to 4 inches wide. They are dark green on top and velvety green on the bottom, with prominent veins. New growth is recurved, like a fiddle-neck. Axillary buds are hidden beneath fleshy leaf petioles. Flowers: The fragrant flowers are borne solitary or in groups of 2 or 3 on short, hairy stalks along the branches. They appear with new growth flushes, continuing as new growth proceeds and on old wood until midsummer. The flowers are made up of three fleshy, greenish-brown, oblong, downy outer petals and three smaller, pinkish inner petals. They are perfect but dichogamous, lasting approximately two days, and opening in two stages, first as female flowers for approximately 36 hours. and later as male flowers. The flower has a declining receptivity to pollen during the female stage and is unlikely to be pollinated by its own pollen in the male stage.Flower too late Fruits: The compound fruit is conical or somewhat heart-shaped, 4 to 8 inches long and up to 4 inches in width, weighing on the average 5-1/2 to 18 ounces, but the largest fruits may reach 5 pounds in weight. The skin, thin or thick, may be smooth with fingerprint-like markings or covered with conical or rounded protuberances. The sweet, juicy, white flesh is melting, subacid and very fragrant. The fruit is of a primitive form with spirally arranged carpels, resembling a raspberry. Each segment of flesh surrounds a single hard black bean-like seed. The fruit size is generally proportional to the number of seeds within. They ripen October to May. CULTURE Location: Cherimoyas prefer a sunny exposure, buoyant marine air and cool nights. In southern California do not plant where heat collects on barren hillside or against a wall, since the leaves and fruit may sunburn badly. In the north, do the opposite: plant against a south facing wall to collect heat and encourage early bud-break and fruit ripening. The trees need protection from constant ocean or Santa Ana winds which may damage them and interfere with pollination and fruit set. Soil: The cherimoya performs well on a wide range of soil types from light to heavy, but seems to do best on a well-drained, medium soil of moderate fertility. The optimum pH ranges from 6.5 to 7.6. Irrigation: Cherimoyas need plenty of moisture while they are growing actively, but should not be watered when they are dormant. The trees are susceptible to root rot in soggy soils, especially in cool weather. Commence deep watering biweekly in April. Drip irrigation is also an excellent way to supply water. It is best to avoid poor water to prevent salt build-up. Drought-stressed trees will drop their leaves, exposing the fruit to sunburn. Fertilization: Cherimoyas should be fertilized on a regular basis. Apply a balanced fertilizer, such as 8-8-8 NPK, in midwinter, then every three months. Increase the amount of fertilizer each year until the trees begin to bear fruit. Mature trees require an annual application of 4 ounces of actual nitrogen per inch of trunk diameter. Cherimoyas also respond to organic amendments. It should be kept in mind that yellow leaves may mean that the soil too dry or the weather too cold, not always a need for fertilizer. Pruning: Cherimoyas have rather brittle wood. Prune during the dormant period to develop strong branches that can support the heavy fruit. Train the tree to two scaffold branches at 2 feet of trunk, pruning them to a 2 foot length. Save only the strongest single shoots, preferably those at 60 to 90 degree angle, and remove the others. In the following years, remove two-thirds of the previous year's growth, leaving six or seven good buds, at time of new growth. This will keep fruiting wood within reach of the ground. Thin out crossing branches. Frost Protection: Young trees are very frost sensitive. Wrap the trunk and scaffold with sponge foam for protection, or cover the entire tree. In cooler areas plant next to a south-facing wall or under the eaves to trap house heat. Pollination: Since natural pollinators are not present in California, the flowers must be pollinated by hand. This is best done in mid-season of bloom, over a period of two to three months. In early evening, collect in a small bottle the anthers and pollen from the interior of fully open male flowers with a #2 or #3 artists brush. Anthers will be tan colored and the white pollen falling from them will be obvious. The pollen has its highest viability at the time it is shed and declines significantly with time. Immediately apply freshly collected pollen with a small brush to the flowers in partially open, female stage. If no female stage flowers are available, pollen may be saved in the sealed container under refrigeration overnight. Pollen may then be applied to female stage flowers in the morning. In large scale operations the pollen may be mixed with inert Lycopodium spores, PVC, starch or talc powder and applied with aspirator-type Japanese apple-pollinators, to save time and pollen. Pollinate every two or three days, and only flowers easily reached inside the tree, to avoid sunburned and wind-damaged fruit. If pollination efforts are quite successful, it may be necessary to thin the fruit. Too much fruit may result in small size and adversely effect future yields. Propagation: Since there are no recognized rootstocks for cherimoyas, seedlings are universally utilized. Seeds from the White cultivar (Dr. White) are thought by some to produce superior rootstocks, however there does not appear to be a great deal of objective data to support this position. Seeds remain viable for two to three years if kept dry and protected from weevil and fungi. With 70° F bottom heat, seed will germinate in about 21 days, but will require about 40 days under normal ambient growing conditions. Seedlings should be transplanted to deep containers (approximately 18") when they are 3" tall to promote development of the tap root. In frost-free areas, it is recommended that seedlings for spring grafting be planted in their ultimate location in the fall and grafted in the ground the following spring. Grafting is most successful in January through May provided previous years leaves have not been shed from the potential scionwood. During this period no scion preparation is required other than removal of leaves. All normal grafting techniques appear to be equally successful. However in topworking, nurse branches are desirable if not essential for success. To bud, collect budwood in July store refrigerated for 10 days in plastic. Petioles will drop exposing dormant buds. Bud at once using chip bud technique and wrap well against dehydration. Grafted plants will bear in two to three years. Pests and Diseases: Mealybugs and snails are the main pests of cherimoyas. Keep ducks or apply copper strips to the trunks for control of snails. Mealybugs are brought by ants which can be controlled to some extent by maintaining fresh Tanglefoot on masking tape around the trunk. The masking tape is important to prevent damage to the tree. Skirt the tree to prevent ant access from the ground or weeds. No chemicals are registered for use on Cherimoyas. Cherimoyas are susceptible to Armillaria (Oak Root Fungus) and Verticillium. Do not plant in old vegetable gardens, or near tomatoes, eggplant or asters. Crown rot can kill trees damaged by frost or growing in saturated soil, as well as from trunks hit by frequent, superficial lawn sprinkling. Harvest: The fruit turns a pale green or creamy yellow color as they reach maturity. Color change is not marked in cool weather. They should be picked when still firm and allowed to soften at room temperature. Ripe fruit will give to soft pressure. Overripe fruit will be dark brown. Fruit left on the tree too long will usually crack or split and begin to decay. The fruit should be clipped rather than pulled from the tree. Cut the stem close to the fruit so it won't puncture other fruit during storage. Store mature fruit above 55° F to prevent chilling injury to the skin and flesh. Ripe fruit will deteriorate quickly but can be stored at temperatures lower than 55° F for short periods. Ripe cherimoyas can be frozen and eaten like ice cream. Cherimoyas are best served chilled, cut in half or quartered and eaten with a spoon. The fruit can also be juiced or used to make delicious sorbets or milkshakes. Commercial Potential: Though unusual in appearance, cherimoyas are readily accepted by western tastes and has become a favorite tropical fruit. Demand greatly exceeds supply in all U.S. markets as most fruit never leaves California, the only producing state. The fruit commands high wholesale and retail prices, but costs are high and major crop losses from frost and fruit splitting are an ever present possibility. The major labor costs are pruning, pollination, ant control and irrigation. FURTHER READING * California Avocado Society Yearbook, 1947 pp 67-70. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 65-69. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 23-25. * Popenoe, Wilson. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Hafner Press. 1974. Facsimile of the 1920 edition. pp. 161-177. * Sanewski, G. M. Growing Custard Apples, Brisbane, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Horticulture Branch, 1987. * Smithsonian Institution, U.S. National Herbarium Contributions, Vol. 18 (1927).

Carambola

2009-01-22T11:48:00.000-08:00

CARAMBOLA Averrhoa carambola L. Oxalidaceae Common Names: Carambola, Starfruit. Related Species: Bilimbi (Averrhoa bilimbi L.). Origin: The carambola is believed to have originated in Sri Lanka and the Moluccas, but it has been cultivated in southeast Asia and Malaysia for many centuries. Adaptation: The carambola is classified as subtropical because mature trees can tolerate temperatures as low as 27° F for short periods of time with little damage. Like many other subtropicals, however, young plants are more susceptible to frost and can be killed at 32° F. Carambolas can be severely damaged by flooding or prevailing hot, dry winds. The small trees make good container plants. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The carambola is a slow-growing, short-trunked evergreen tree with a much-branched, bushy canopy that is broad and rounded. Mature trees seldom exceed 25-30 feet in height and 20-25 feet in spread. Trees are very unlikely to reach this size in California. In a spot to its liking carambolas make handsome ornamentals. Container grown plants are equally attractive and have the additional advantage of being movable. Foliage: The spirally arranged, alternate leaves are 6 - 10 inches long, with 5 - 11 nearly opposite, ovate-oblong leaflets that are 1-1/2 to 3-1/2 inches in length. They are soft, medium-green, and smooth on the upper surface, faintly hairy and whitish on the underside. The leaflets are sensitive to light and more or less inclined to to fold together at night or when the tree is shaken or abruptly shocked. Flowers: The fragrant, pink to lavender flowers are 3/8 inch in diameter, perfect, and borne in clusters in axils of leaves on young branches, or on older branches without leaves. There are several flushes of bloom throughout the year. Fruit: Carambola fruits are ovate to ellipsoid, 2-1/2 to 5 inches (6 to 13 cm) in length, with 5 (rarely 4 or 6) prominent longitudinal ribs. Slices cut in cross-section are star shaped. The skin is thin, light to dark yellow and smooth with a waxy cuticle. The flesh is light yellow to yellow, translucent, crisp and very juicy, without fiber. The fruit has a more or less oxalic acid odor and the flavor ranges from very sour to mildly sweet. The so-called sweet types rarely have more than 4% sugar. There may be up to 12 flat, thin brown seeds 1/4 - 1/2 inch long or none at all. Seeds lose viability in a few days after removal from fruit. CULTURE Location: Carambolas do best in a frost-free location. They are tolerant of wind except for those that are hot and dry. The tree needs full sun. Soils: The carambola is not too particular as to soil, but will grow faster and bear more heavily in rich loam. It prefers a moderately acid soil (pH 5.5 - 6.5) and is sensitive to waterlogging. The plant often becomes chlorotic in alkaline soils. Irrigation: The carambola need moisture for best performance. This means regular watering during the summer months and must be watered even in winter during dry spells. Fertilization: In soils of low fertility young trees should receive light applications every 60 to 90 days until well established. Thereafter, they should receive one or two applications a year in deep soils or three or more applications in shallow soils where nutrients are lost by leaching. Application at the rate of 2 lbs per year for every inch of trunk diameter is suggested. Fertilizer mixtures containing 6-8% nitrogen, 2-4% available phosphoric acid, 6-8% potash and 3-4% magnesium are satisfactory. In the more fertile soils of California, this program can be reduced. The tree is prone to chlorosis in many western soils but responds to soil and foliar application of chelated iron and other micronutrients. Frost protection: Since it is a small tree, winter protection can be fairly easily given prior to any anticipated cold spell. Carpeting, sheets and such can be spread over a frame, with light bulbs for added warmth. Pruning: Carambolas seldom need pruning. Pests and Diseases: No serious diseases are known to be of sufficient importance to require control measures. The fruit is subject to fruit fly, fruit moths and fruit spotting bugs in those areas having these infestations. Propagation: The carambola is widely grown from seed though viability lasts only a few days. Only plump, fully developed seed should be planted. Veneer grafting during the time of most active growth gives the best results. Healthy, year-old seedlings of 3/8 - 3/4 inch diameter are best for rootstocks. Graft-wood should be taken from mature twigs on which leaves are still present and, if possible, the buds are just beginning to grow. Cleft-grafting of green budwood is also successful. Top-working of older trees has been done by bark grafting. Air-layering is less successful than grafting. The roots develop slowly, and percentage of success often is low. Trees are small and rather weak when propagated by this method. Harvest: Fruit best when ripened on the tree, but will ripen slowly if picked before fully ripe. Green or ripe fruits are easily damaged and must be handled with great care. Ripe carambolas are eaten out-of-hand, sliced and served in salads or used as a garnish. They are also cooked in puddings, tarts, stews and curries. FURTHER READING * Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. p. 39. * Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit, rev. ed. Lewis S. Maxwell, 1984. p. 19. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 125-128.

Banana

2009-01-22T11:44:00.000-08:00

BANANA Musa species Musaceae Common Names: Banana, Bananier Nain, Canbur, Curro, Plantain Origin: Edible bananas originated in the Indo-Malaysian region reaching to northern Australia. Species: Musa acuminata Colla, M. X paradisiaca L. (hybrid) Related species Abyssinian Banana (Ensete ventricossum Cheesman), Musa balbisina Colla, M. ornata Roxb., M. textilis Nee Adaptation Bananas and plantains are today grown in every humid tropical region and constitutes the 4th largest fruit crop of the world. The plant needs 10 - 15 months of frost-free conditions to produce a flower stalk. All but the hardiest varieties stop growing when the temperature drops below 53° F. Growth of the plant begins to slow down at about 80° F and stop entirely when the temperature reaches 100° F. High temperatures and bright sunlight will also scorch leaves and fruit, although bananas grow best in full sun. Freezing temperatures will kill the foliage. In most areas bananas require wind protection for best appearance and maximum yield. They are also susceptible to being blown over. Bananas, especially dwarf varieties, make good container specimens if given careful attention. The plant will also need periodic repotting as the old plant dies back and new plants develop. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: Bananas are fast-growing herbaceous perennials arising from underground rhizomes. The fleshy stalks or pseudostems formed by upright concentric layers of leaf sheaths constitute the functional trunks. The true stem begins as an underground corm which grows upwards, pushing its way out through the center of the stalk 10-15 months after planting, eventually producing the terminal inflorescence which will later bear the fruit. Each stalk produces one huge flower cluster and then dies. New stalks then grow from the rhizome. Banana plants are extremely decorative, ranking next to palm trees for the tropical feeling they lend to the landscape. Foliage: The large oblong or elliptic leaf blades are extensions of the sheaths of the pseudostem and are joined to them by fleshy, deeply grooved, short petioles. The leaves unfurl, as the plant grows, at the rate of one per week in warm weather, and extend upward and outward , becoming as much as 9 feet long and 2 feet wide. They may be entirely green, green with maroon splotches, or green on the upper side and red-purple beneath. The leaf veins run from the mid-rib straight to the outer edge of the leaf. Even when the wind shreds the leaf, the veins are still able to function. Approximately 44 leaves will appear before the inflorescence. Flowers: The banana inflorescence shooting out from the heart in the tip of the stem, is at first a large, long-oval, tapering, purple-clad bud. As it opens, the slim, nectar-rich, tubular, toothed, white flowers appear. They are clustered in whorled double rows along the the floral stalk, each cluster covered by a thick, waxy, hood like bract, purple outside and deep red within. The flowers occupying the first 5 - 15 rows are female. As the rachis of the inflorescence continues to elongate, sterile flowers with abortive male and female parts appear, followed by normal staminate ones with abortive ovaries. The two latter flower types eventually drop in most edible bananas. Fruits: The ovaries contained in the first (female) flowers grow rapidly, developing parthenocarpically (without pollination) into clusters of fruits, called hands. The number of hands varies with the species and variety. The fruit (technically a berry) turns from deep green to yellow or red, and may range from 2-1/2 to 12 inches in length and 3/4 to 2 inches in width. The flesh, ivory-white to yellow or salmon-yellow, may be firm, astringent, even gummy with latex when unripe, turning tender and slippery, or soft and mellow or rather dry and mealy or starchy when ripe. The flavor may be mild and sweet or subacid with a distinct apple tone. The common cultivated types are generally seedless with just vestiges of ovules visible as brown specks. Occasionally, cross-pollination with wild types will result in a number of seeds in a normally seedless variety. CULTURE Location: Bananas require as much warmth as can be given them. Additional warmth can be given by planting next to a building. Planting next to cement or asphalt walks or driveways also helps. Wind protection is advisable, not for leaf protection as much as for protection of the plant after the banana stalk has appeared. During these last few months propping should be done to keep the plant from tipping or being blown over. Soil: Bananas will grow in most soils, but to thrive, they should be planted in a rich, well-drained soil. The best possible location would be above an abandoned compost heap. They prefer an acid soil with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5. The banana is not tolerant of salty soils. Irrigation: The large leaves of bananas use a great deal of water. Regular deep watering is an absolute necessity during warm weather. Do not let plants dry out, but do not overwater. Standing water, especially in cool weather, will cause root rot. Plants grown in dry summer areas such as Southern California need periodic deep waterings to help leach the soil of salts. Spread a thick layer of mulch on the soil to help conserve moisture and protect the shallow roots. Container grown plants should be closely watched to see that they do not dry out. An occasional deep watering to leach the soil is also helpful. Fertilization: Their rapid growth rate make bananas heavy feeders. During warm weather, apply a balanced fertilizer once a month--a 8:10:8 NPK fertilizer appears to be adequate. A mature plant may require as much as 1-1/2 to 2 pounds of the above fertilizer each month. Young plants need a quarter to a third as much. Spread the fertilizer evenly around the plant in a circle extending 4 - 8 feet from the trunk. Do not allow the fertilizer to come in contact with the trunk. Feed container container plants on the same monthly schedule using about half the rate for outside plants. Frost Protection: Bananas flourish best under uniformly warm conditions but can survive 28° F for short periods. If the temperature does not fall below 22° F and the cold period is short, the underground rhizome will usually survive. To keep the plants that are above ground producing, protection against low temperatures is very important. Wrap trunk or cover with blanket if the plants are small and low temperatures are predicted. Pruning Only one primary stem of each rhizome should be allowed to fruit. All excess shoots should be removed as soon as they are noticed. This helps channel all of of the plant's energy into fruit production. Once the main stalk is 6 - 8 months old, permit one sucker to develop as a replacement stalk for the following season. When the fruit is harvested, cut the fruiting stalk back to 30 inches above the ground. Remove the stub several weeks later. The stalk can be cut into small pieces and used as mulch. Propagation: Propagation of bananas is done with rhizomes called suckers or pups. Very small pups are called buttons. Large suckers are the preferred planting material. These are removed from vigorous clumps with a spade when at least three feet tall, during warm months. Pups should not be taken until a clump has at least three to four large plants to anchor it. When the pup is taken the cut must be into the mother plant enough to obtain some roots. Plant close to the surface. Large leaves are cut off of the pup leaving only the youngest leaves or no leaves at all. Some nurseries supply banana plants as container grown suckers. Pests and Diseases: Bananas have few troublesome pests or diseases outside the tropics. Root rot from cold wet soil is by far the biggest killer of banana plants in our latitudes. California is extremely fortunate in not having nematodes that are injurious to the banana. Gophers topple them, and snails and earwigs will crawl up to where they can get continuous water, but these pests do not bother the plant. Fruit Harvest: Stalks of bananas are usually formed in the late summer and then winter over. In March they begin "plumping up" and may ripen in April. Occasionally, a stalk will form in early summer and ripen before cold weather appears. The fruit can be harvested by cutting the stalk when the bananas are plump but green. For tree-ripened fruit, cut one hand at a time as it ripens. If latter is done, check stalk daily as rodents can eat the insides of every banana, from above, and the stalk will look untouched. Once harvested the stalk should be hung in a cool, shady place. Since ethylene helps initiate and stimulate ripening, and mature fruit gives off this gas in small amounts, ripening can be hastened by covering the bunch with a plastic bag. Plantains are starchy types that are cooked before eating. FURTHER READING * Lessard, William O. Complete Book of Bananas. William O. Lessard, Publisher. 1992 * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 29-46 * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 20-23

Avocado

2009-01-22T11:39:00.000-08:00

AVOCADO Persea species Lauraceae Common Name: Avocado, Alligator Pear (English); Aguacate, Palta (Spanish) Origin: The avocado probably originated in southern Mexico but was cultivated from the Rio Grande to central Peru before the arrival of Europeans. Species: Guatemalan (Persea nubigena var. guatamalensis L. Wms.), Mexican (P. americana var. drymifolia Blake), West Indian (P. americana Mill. var. americana). Hybrid forms exist between all three types. Related species: Coyo (Persea schiedeana Nees), Anay (Beilschmiedia anay Kosterm) Adaptation: Avocados do well in the mild-winter areas of California, Florida and Hawaii. Some hardier varieties can be grown in the cooler parts of northern and inland California and along the Gulf Coast. The northern limits in California is approximately Cape Mendocino and Red Bluff. Avocados do best some distance from ocean influence but are not adapted to the desert interior. West Indian varieties thrive in humid, tropical climates and freeze at or near 32° F. Guatemalan types are native to cool, high-altitude tropics and are hardy 30 - 26° F. Mexican types are native to dry subtropical plateaus and thrive in a Mediterranean climate. They are hardy 24 - 19° F. Avocados need some protection from high winds which may break the branches. There are dwarf forms of avocados suitable for growing in containers. Avocados have been grown in California (Santa Barbara) since 1871. DESCRIPTION Growth Habit: The avocado is a dense, evergreen tree, shedding many leaves in early spring. It is fast growing and can with age reach 80 feet, although usually less, and generally branches to form a broad tree. Some cultivars are columnar, others selected for nearly prostrate form. One cultivar makes a good espalier. Growth is in frequent flushes during warm weather in southern regions with only one long flush per year in cooler areas. Injury to branches causes a secretion of dulcitol, a white, powdery sugar, at scars. Roots are coarse and greedy and will raise pavement with age. Grafted plants normally produce fruit within one to two years compared to 8 - 20 years for seedlings. Foliage: Avocado leaves are alternate, glossy, elliptic and dark green with paler veins. They normally remain on the tree for 2 to 3 years. The leaves of West Indian varieties are scentless, while Guatemalan types are rarely anise-scented and have medicinal use. The leaves of Mexican types have a pronounced anise scent when crushed. The leaves are high in oils and slow to compost and may collect in mounds beneath trees. Flowers: Avocado flowers appear in January - March before the first seasonal growth, in terminal panicles of 200 - 300 small yellow-green blooms. Each panicle will produce only one to three fruits. The flowers are perfect, but are either receptive to pollen in the morning and shed pollen the following afternoon (type A), or are receptive to pollen in the afternoon, and shed pollen the following morning (type B). About 5% of flowers are defective in form and sterile. Production is best with cross-pollination between types A and B. The flowers attract bees and hoverflies and pollination usually good except during cool weather. Off-season blooms may appear during the year and often set fruit. Some cultivars bloom and set fruit in alternate years. Fruits: West Indian type avocados produce enormous, smooth round, glossy green fruits that are low in oil and weigh up to 2 pounds. Guatemalan types produce medium ovoid or pear-shaped, pebbled green fruits that turn blackish-green when ripe. The fruit of Mexican varieties are small (6 - 10 ounces) with paper-thin skins that turn glossy green or black when ripe. The flesh of avocados is deep green near the skin, becoming yellowish nearer the single large, inedible ovoid seed. The flesh is hard when harvested but softens to a buttery texture. Wind-caused abrasion can scar the skin, forming cracks which extend into the flesh. "Cukes" are seedless, pickle-shaped fruits. Off-season fruit should not be harvested with the main crop, but left on the tree to mature. Seeds may sprout within an avocado when it is over-mature, causing internal molds and breakdown. High in monosaturates, the oil content of avocados is second only to olives among fruits, and sometimes greater. Clinical feeding studies in humans have shown that avocado oil can reduce blood cholesterol. CULTURE Location: Avocados will grow in shade and between buildings, but are productive only in full sun. The roots are highly competitive and will choke out nearby plants. The shade under the trees is too dense to garden under, and the constant litter can be annoying. In cooler areas plant the tree where it will receive sun during the winter. Give the tree plenty of room--up to 20 feet. The avocado is not suitable for hedgerow, but two or three trees can be planted in a single large hole to save garden space and enhance pollination. At the beach or in windy inland canyons, provide a windbreak of some sort. Once established the avocado is a fairly tough tree. Indoor trees need low night temperatures to induce bloom. Container plants should be moved outdoors with care. Whitewashing the trunk or branches will prevent sunburn. Soil: Avocado trees like loose, decomposed granite or sandy loam best. They will not survive in locations with poor drainage. The trees grow well on hillsides and should never be planted in stream beds. They are tolerant of acid or alkaline soil. In containers use a planting mix combined with topsoil. Plastic containers should be avoided. It is also useful to plant the tub with annual flowers to reduce excess soil moisture and temperature. Container plants should be leached often to reduce salts. Irrigation: Avocado trees may not need irrigation during the winter rainy season, but watch for prolonged mid-winter dry spells. Over irrigation can induce root which is the most common cause of avocado failure. To test to see if irrigation is necessary, dig a hole 9 inches deep and test the soil by squeezing. If it is moist (holds together), do not irrigate; if it crumbles in the hand, it may be watered. Watch soil moisture carefully at the end of the irrigating season. Never enter winter with wet soil. Avocados tolerate some salts, though they will show leaf tip burn and stunting of leaves. Deep irrigation will leach salt accumulation. Fertilization: Commence feeding of young trees after one year of growth, using a balanced fertilizer, four times yearly. Older trees benefit from feeding with nitrogenous fertilizer applied in late winter and early summer. Yellowed leaves (chlorosis) indicate iron deficiency. This can usually be corrected by a chelated foliar spray of trace elements containing iron. Mature trees often also show a zinc deficiency. Frost Protection: It is important to choose a cultivar that is hardy in your area. Mexican types are the best choice for colder regions. Plant above a slope for air drainage, or near the house for added protection. In youth, protect with rugs, towels and such spread overhead on a frame. For further protection heat with light bulbs and wrap the trunk with sponge foam. These measures also permit tender cultivars to become established in borderline locations; established trees are much hardier than young ones. The upper branches can also be top worked with hardy Mexican types, which will protect a more tender cultivar on lower branches, as well as serving as a pollinator. Harvest fruit before the frost season begins. Cold-damaged fruit turns black. Avocados are often in bloom at the time of frost and the flowers are killed, but the tree tends to rebloom. This is especially true of Mexican types. Pruning: Columnar cultivars require pinching at early age to form a rounded tree. Others need no training. Current orchard practice avoids staking. The best results are obtained by fencing the tree with plastic mesh for the first two to three years. Container and dwarf trees will need constant staking. The skirts of avocado trees are sometimes trimmed to discourage rodents, otherwise the trees are usually never pruned. Branches exposed to sun by defoliation are extraordinarily susceptible to sunburn and will surely die. Such branches should always be whitewashed. It is better to avoid any pruning. Most cultivars are ill-adapted to espalier. They are too vigorous. Avocado fruit is self-thinning. Propagation: Desired clonal rootstocks can be be propagated by a method known as the etiolation technique. The largest seed are planted in gallon cans and the seedlings are then grafted to a root rot tolerant clonal scion. When the stem of the graft reaches about 1/4 inch in diameter, the top is cut off leaving a whorl of buds just above the graft. A 4 inch band of black tar paper is formed into an extension of the can and filled with vermiculite and placed in a dark box with high temperature and humidity. When growth is some 3 - 4 inches above the vermiculite, the plant is removed into the light where the upper portion quickly assumes a green color. The tar paper collar is removed, the shoot is severed from the seed and then placed in flats where the cuttings are rooted in the conventional manner. Any seed may also be used for rootstock, but Mexican types make the strongest growth and are the most often used. Plant cleaned seeds as soon as they are ripe. The seedling plants are ready to bud the following year. Budding is done in January, when suitable buds are available. Larger stocks are worked by bark grafts in the spring. Scions are collected Dec - Jan after the buds are well-formed. Paint and cover the graft with a moistened plastic bag and place a vented paper bag over the whole. Pests and diseases: Rats and squirrels will strip the fruit. Protect with tin trunk wraps. Leaf-rolling caterpillars (Tortrix and Amorbia) may destroy branch terminals. Avocado Brown Mite can be controlled by powdered sulfur. Six-spotted Mite is very harmful; even a small population can cause massive leaf shedding. A miticide may be required if natural predators are absent. Snails can be a problem in California. Two fungi and one virus cause more damage than any pests. Dothiorella (Botryosphaeria ribis) canker infects the trunk, causing dead patches that spreads to maturing fruit, causing darkened, rancid smelling spots in the flesh. Flesh injury begins after harvest and is impossible to detect on outside. Mexican types are immune to trunk cankers but the fruit is not. The disease is rampant near the coast and has no economical control. Root Rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi) is a soil-borne fungus that infects many plants, including avocados. It is a major disease problem in California. Select disease-free, certified plants and avoid planting where avocados once grew or where soil drainage is poor. The disease is easily transported by equipment, tools and shoes from infected soils. Once a tree is infected (signs include yellowing and dropping leaves), there is little that can be done other than cut back on water. Sun Blotch is a viral disease that causes yellowed streaking of young stems, mottling and crinkling of new leaves and occasional deformation of the fruit. It also causes rectangular cracking and checking of the trunk, as if sunburned. It has no insect vector but is spread by use of infected scions, contaminated tools and roots grafted with adjacent trees. It is important to use virus-free propagating wood. Harvest: The time of harvest depends upon the variety. Commercial standards requires fruit to reach 8% oil content before harvesting. Mexican types ripen in 6 - 8 months from bloom while Guatemalan types usually take 12 - 18 months. Fruits may continue enlarging on the tree even after maturity. Purple cultivars should be permitted to color fully before harvest. Guatemalan types can be stored firm, at 40 - 50° F. for up to six weeks. Mexican types discolor quickly and require immediate consumption. Miscellaneous: Leaf and seed extracts have been used for a variety of medical application, including treatment of diarrhea and dysentery and as an antibiotic. FURTHER READING * See generally: California Avocado Society Yearbook, 1915 to present. * Davenport, T.L. Avocado Flowering, Hort. Reviews 8: 257-289. * Koch, F.D. Avocado Grower's Handbook, Bonsall Publications, 1983. * Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 91-102. * Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 16-19.

Juice Therapy

2009-01-16T15:33:00.000-08:00

Curative and preventive properties of fruits and vegetables in ensuring a healthy body and glowing skin: Did you know that papaya,orange,lemon and pomegranate act as antidotes to high blood pressure......or amla and carrot are useful in controlling asthma...or guava and mosambi help in regualting constipation? In fact each and every fruit and vegetable has incrediable curative properties,and offers a natural way to good health.Fruits and vegetables act as scavengers to our body,and drive away toxic and harmful wastes.They nourish our body with pure water,sugar,vitamins, minerals,proteins,fibres,aromatic compounds and host of other micronutrients.Here are some examples which will help you combat some ailments effectively: High B.P. antidotes: Papaya,orange,lemon,pomegranate. Skin Disease preventives: Apple,carrot,watermelon,lemon. Asthma prophylactics: Amla,carrot,pomegranate. Fever combatants: Orange,mosambi,pomegranate. Diarrhoea curatives: Pineapple,apple,pomegranate. Constipation regulators: Guava,mosambi,apple. Digestion aid: Spinach(palak). Diabetic control: Bitter gourd(karela). Jaundice and Diarrhoea control: Carrot. According to nutritionists, weekly once, depending on the convenience of the persons,the stomach can be given complete rest without losing the required energy by following the juice therapy.In a 24-hour juice therapy,one can take different types of juices for every 2 hours and this can be discontinued when one goes to sleep,of course,under the medical guidance of the doctor.Thus your body gets detoxified every week. Juice Therapy with some common vegetables: The Juice of Amaranth leaves is effective in resolving cataract. For Diabetes,a mixture of equal quantities of amla juice and bitter gourd juice taken every morning show a reduction in blood glucose levels. Beet juice is one of the most valuable juices for the liver and gall bladder. Brinjal juice is found to be an effective remedy for toothache. The use of cabbage juice for treatment of stomach ulcers is one of the latest and most vital advances in the field of juice therapy. A cup of carrot juice taken daily improves the eyesight and prevents cataract.Carrot juice is also excellent for the treatment of infantile diarrhoea and acute colitis.It also prevents dehydration.Mixed with a little honey carrot juice is highly effective in all sorts of fevers,general debility,nervous disorders,anaemia,lassitude,low vitality,and rundown conditions.Carrot juice applied on the burns help them heal faster. 1-2 tsp fresh juice of coriander leaves mixed in 1 teacup buttermilk to be taken 2-3 times daily for Dysentry,Hepatitis,Indigestion and Nausea.Juice of fresh coriander leaves can be used as nasal drops for bleeding nose.Coriander juice applied on blackheads and pimples daily work wonders. Equal quantities to limejuice and the juice of the fresh leaves of the drumstick plant applied on the blackheads and pimples regularly,help in getting rid of them.Drumstick juice mixed with carrot juice help reduce blood pressure. 2 tsp fresh juice of Fenugreek leaves along with 1 tsp honey to be taken daily in case of recurrent headaches and insomnia. Equal quantities of ginger juice,lemon juice,pudina juice and honey to be taken frequently for Dyspepsia,nausea,indigestion,jaundice,morning sickness and piles.Juice of ginger should be taken with honey 2-3 times daily for persistent cough. Lemon juice is an excellent blood purifier.Upon rising in the morning,drink the juice of 1 lemon in a cup of warm water.It helps in reducing obesity.Asthma is relieved by taking a half-spoonfdul of lemon-juice before each meal and upon retiring.Lemon juice taken 3-4 times daily along with garlic cures cough and cold.Drinking lemon juice daily helps to alleviate rheumatic fever,painful joints,lumbago and sciatica. Mint leaf juice is good in case of digestive disorders. Equal quantities of raw onion juice and honey,taken twice a day are effective for stomachache and indigestion. A cup of raw potato juice taken daily cures acidity. Juice of fresh ripe pumpkin taken regularly helps to get rid of kidney stones.Radish juice and its leaves,mixed with a little sugar,should be taken twice daily in the cases of jaundice.Equal quantities of radish juice,cucumber juice and capsicum juice,taken once a week would help in cleansing the digestive and respiratory systems of the body. Raw spinach juice taken twice a day before meals lowers the blood sugar.Spinach leaf juice,as a gargle,is good for sore throat. A glass of fresh tomato juice taken daily cleanses the system and prevents hardening of the arteries.Tomato juice keeps the blood stream alkaline and thus maintains high resistance to disease. Turnip juice mixed with cabbage or carrot juice,taken daily reduces mucous,helps asthma and bronchitis and relieves sore throats. Chill it out!!! 1.Red Wonder Ingredients: 80 ml Carrot juice,80 ml beetroot juice,100ml tomato juice,ice-cubes,2 tsp lemon juice,1 pinch of rock salt,pepper powder. For Garnishing:Some mint leaves. Method: Mix all the juices together.Add sugar cubes,salt and pepper.Garnish with mint leaves and serve. ********************************************* 2.Summer Magic Ingredients: Watermelon(enough to make 200ml juice),Pomegranate(enough to make 200ml juice),mint leaves(chopped),1 tbsp lemon juice,crushed ice. For Garnishing: 1 tsp aniseed(roasted). Method: In a tall glass,place the crushed ice at the bottom.Pour the juices and add the mint leaves.Add the lemon juice.Garnish with aniseed and serve. ********************************************* 3.Mint Cooler Cocktail: Ingredients: 60ml Bacardi White(optional); 90 ml mint tea; 1 tsp honey; 4-5 lemon chunks; 5 mint leaves; Method: Muddle lemon chunks, mint leaves and honey.Add Bacardi.Fill the glass with ice and then top up with tea liqueur. *********************************************

Fruit and cancer

2009-01-16T15:25:00.000-08:00

Increased fruit and vegetable consumption is associated with a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease but not cancer, according to a new study that suggests the cancer-protective effect may have been 'overstated'. The study raises questions about government public health campaigns that recommend five or more servings of fruits and vegetables daily to reduce both risk of heart disease and cancer. It also underlines the grey area between public health messages and the evidence required to support a claim for the health benefits of fruit and vegetables. Cancer and coronary heart disease account for 60 per cent of all early deaths, according to the UK's department of health, which declares on its website that increasing fruit and vegetable consumption is the second most important cancer prevention strategy, after reducing smoking. But researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston say the overall associations between fruit and vegetables and cardiovascular disease and cancer have rarely been evaluated in large cohort studies. In a new analysis of data from more than 100,000 participants in two large cohort studies, the Nurses' Health Study and the Health Professionals' Follow-up Study, they found an inverse association between total fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease but no relationship with cancer incidence. "Consumption of five or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day has been recommended in the National 5 A Day for Better Health Program for cancer prevention, but the protective effect of fruit and vegetable intake may have been overstated," the researchers write in the 3 November issue of the Journal of the National Cancer Institute (vol 96, no 21, 1577-1584). In an analysis of different groups of fruits and vegetables, consumption of green leafy vegetables showed the strongest inverse association with both cardiovascular disease and major chronic disease (cancer and cardiovascular disease combined). While the findings for cardiovascular disease "still support the recommendations of the American Heart Association of consuming at least five servings of fruits and vegetables per day", the evidence for a cancer-protective effect appears limited. In an editorial, Arthur Schatzkin and Victor Kipnis of the National Cancer Institute discuss the possibility that substantial errors in measuring diet as well as other confounding factors in the study may have distorted true associations between fruit and vegetable intake and cancer. "The evidence is simply inadequate at this time to determine whether fruit and vegetable intake confers modest protection against cancer. Researchers should recognize this uncertainty in nutrition and cancer epidemiology and do what it takes to move ahead, especially when it comes to improving exposure assessment in observational studies," they write. The UK's department of health is also set to come under pressure from industry, confused by the discrepancy between public health advice and laws on health claims. Last week the country's second biggest supermarket Asda was fined £5,000 for claiming that the antioxidant properties of mangoes could help to fight cancer. Asda said it is planning to write to the UK health minister John Reid for help in clarifying the law. A spokesman from the department of health said the government's advice comes from recommendations by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy and Nutrition, which concluded in 1998 that a review of evidence showed that higher vegetable consumption would reduce the risk of colorectal cancer and gastric cancer. There was also weakly consistent evidence that higher fruit and vegetable consumption would reduce the risk of breast cancer.

Beauty tips with fruits

2009-01-16T15:19:00.000-08:00

Women in today’s generation give more priority to their external beauty. Most of the females who want to have a beautiful look they rush to beauticians that which waste their time, money and finally results in loss of natural skin shining. One can have a healthy and natural beautiful skin by following safe and easier tips at home that does not cause any damage to the skin and which protects the skin for long. Learn how to make homemade face masks. Now many home made beauty tips have been introduced which really gives natural look without causing any damage to the skin where they can do on their own or with anyone help. The variety of tips are in use that which highlights your natural beauty in areas like hair care, blemish removal, skin care, make up, eye care and many others. One can have a face massage with fruits such as orange, papaya, banana, apple and many more with following the directions that really makes the skin shine and blossom. In case of having fine air, curly air, shining air one can one follow the easy directions in cutting and trimming to make them look beautiful. By applying the sunscreen of good brand can protect the skin from tan. The chemical free sunscreen lotions protect the skin from ultraviolet rays, which damages the skin. Frequent face wash is highly suggested to avoid the dust, pimples and bacteria. You can make your skin glow with the easy steps that can be followed at home like regular wash face before and after bed, Applying the low chemical creams before leaving out that protects the skin from sun tan. The in taking of fruit juices and vegetable juices like orange, apple, carrot, beetroot and other fruits makes your skin shine and healthy. Moisturizing the face with low content of chemicals keeps the skin tight without any wrinkles. Drinking excess water makes the skin glow where the water helps to eliminate the bacteria and toxins from the body. Cleaning the skin with the cleansing milk is the best tip where it consists of milk factors. One can have the healthy eyes by applying the cucumber juice whenever the eyes are tired and looks puffy. By applying the regular lip gels and the fruit creams can make lips shiny, smooth and soft. It is good to use the fruit creams and vegetable creams rather than chemical creams to have a healthy and beautiful young look skin where the chemical creams slowly damages the skin resistance. One can make the gorgeous skin by applying the fruits creams, low chemical creams, with regular face wash, in taking of water an juices, with adequate sleep and by following many other easy tips that can make on your own. Simple make up helps the skin from damage. Using the good brand products gives the beautiful look. Apart from all the beauty tips the most and important is one can have the younger and slim body look by exercising daily that which protects the body from extra fat and toxins and gives the energetic glow to the body and skin and also internal and external body fitness.

Body Detoxification

2009-01-16T15:10:00.000-08:00

We are all aware of the wonderful benefits that fruits can do for our body. Having enough servings of them everyday not only provides us with the necessary vitamins and other nutrients, it also helps in cleansing out our system. Through detoxification, our body flushes out any impurities inside via our excretory systems and organs. The great thing about detoxification is that it gives your body the chance to heal and therefore promoting a healthier you. Drinking fresh fruit and vegetable juice may just be the magic elixir you are waiting for all your life. Just ask those people who have consume lots of fruits and vegetables; you will find out that they have more health and vitality than other people do. If you start your day with a good serving of fresh fruit juice, you are not only starting your day in the best way possible, but also cleansing your internal system in the process. With a cleaner system, the less chance you have of acquiring any serious illness or visiting the doctor in the near future. But take note that you also need to prepare you fruit juices properly. You just can't put it whole fruits into a dirty juicer and add to the toxin problems you already have. There is also a chance that you might be mixing in some toxic metals in your juice, especially from the water you are adding to it. Heavy metals are also bad news for your body. The fruits and vegetables that you will be incorporating in your detoxification diet needs to come from natural and organic sources. Green and leafy vegetables should also be a part of you fruity concoction, as well as other vegetables rich in antioxidants like carrots, spinach and kale. The water must always be purified or distilled in order to be sure that what you are drinking is safe. Detoxification diets are well-known to have a fruit-juice fasting course in it. Not only will you need to drink fresh fruit juice, you also need to avoid eating any form of solid food. This also includes all your fruits and vegetables, which should always be consumed in liquid form. This will provide your body with a chance to have a break from its heavy digesting duties and allow it to heal and rest. This will also help clear the colon of any impurities that are clogging it. This step in detoxification must is best taken for 2 to 5 days. You may need to slow down or maybe stop undergoing a detoxification program if you have serious health problems like high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, kidney problems, iron deficiency or any other health condition that will not go well with this kind of diet. Pregnant and breastfeeding women are also advised against undergoing any form of detoxification program. As with any detoxification program, it is always better if you consult your doctor first and discuss with him your intentions of undergoing any kind of diet program. This will help ensure that you are doing the right thing for your body instead of the opposite. If this is your first time of getting into a detoxification program, it is recommended that you give your body some time to adjust to the changes in your routine. Start slowly at first, and see if your body is okay with the idea of not having solid foods for around 1 to 3 days. If your body gives you the "go" signal, then proceed further. It may be a bit difficult at first, but believe me, the benefits you will get from this are worth all the effort. Detoxification with fruit juice will be a lot more fun and enjoyable if you had some simple and delicious recipes to start with. Try the "Vegetable Juice Combo", which contains in it two Swiss chard leaves. It also contains some beet root, celery stalk, three sprigs of watercress and three carrots. Make sure you prepare the vegetables clean and use only distilled and purified water. Another good juice recipe is the "Carrot-Apple Juice" which is concocted using three green apples, a carrot and some basil leaves. Mix them all in a blender or juicer and you have a delicious, healthy and body cleansing elixir! Beyonce Knowles recently announced on the Oprah Winfrey talk show that she had lost a massive 20 pounds on the Master Cleanse detox diet! Compare the best detox diets used by the Hollywood's superstars!

Fruits & Vegetables - About Fact

2009-01-16T12:45:00.000-08:00

The plant kingdom is filled with gifts that can help fight off chronic disease. Phytochemicals are a group of compounds found in plants ranging from garlic and cabbage to tea leaves that have been shown to help fight disease by preventing cellular damage caused by free radicals. A diet rich in fiber also has been shown to help reduce the risk of heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes and cancer.

WHY DO WE RESIST EATING VEGGIES? Don’t force yourself to eat stuff you hate, but try to find ways to turn the plant kingdom into dishes you enjoy. Aim for variety - get as many different vegetables as you can into salads, soups, stews, sides, salsas and pasta sauces on a daily basis. Fresh is best, but frozen is fine and even canned will do. AN APPLE A DAY Fruit is a natural energy source, and there's nothing wrong with eating an apple a day. But variety is key, and there's a whole world of fruit to be enjoyed. Look for new ways to add fruit to your daily routine. Begin your day with a fruit smoothie or throw a handful of banana slices and mixed berries on your cereal. Add peaches, pears or melons to your lunch, and snack on fresh or dried fruit. Try fish and meat with tropical-fruit salsa. Be adventurous - find out what a loquat or a persimmon tastes like. SPUDS Americans love their potatoes; we eat 140 lbs. per capita yearly. And while a plain potato is low in fat and a good source of nutrients, it is also primarily a carbohydrate that is almost immediately turned into sugar in the body. Besides, we love to dress them up with butter, sour cream or gravy. Don’t stop eating potatoes—just don't eat them to the exclusion of other vegetables. JUICE Starting each day with a glass of juice is a healthy morning ritual. But remember that juice has more calories - and sometimes added sugar -and less fiber than fruit. PHYTOCHEMICALS You may have seen these compounds as supplements. Some of the best known are the flavonoids, which grow naturally in citrus fruits, onions, apples and grapes. Researchers think flavonoids may protect against cancer. Indoles, another kind of phytochemical, are found in cruciferous vegetables , such as broccoli and Brussels sprouts, and may offer protection against a host of chronic diseases. Other phytochemicals are:

CAROTENOIDS: Beta-carotenes, the best-known carotenoids, give color to carrots and other orange, red and yellow produce and are converted to vitamin A in our bodies. Lutein and zeaxanthin, from green vegetables, and lycopene, from tomatoes, may protect against coronary-artery disease, cataracts, macular degeneration and cancer.
ISOFLAVONES: Plant estrogens—soy foods are a particularly rich source—seem to have some of the same effects as estrogen. Benefits may include lower blood-lipid levels, decreased risk of hormone-related cancers of the breast, ovaries, endometrium and prostate and relief from menopausal symptoms. Don’t love tofu? Roasted soybeans make a good snack, or try cooking green soybeans like lima beans. Use soy milk in a milk shake or smoothie.

10 Reasons To Eat Fruit

2009-01-16T11:50:00.000-08:00

Fruit consists for the largest part of water Just like the human body does. If you think about it, it's logical to consume food that contains as much water as your body does... Fruit Stimulates Our Memories If you didn't know yet: fruit is the ultimate brain fuel. Fruit has a positive effect on our brains and makes you recall information easier and faster... The Miraculous Healing Effects Of Fruit Spectacular stories about people that cured from cancer by a strict diet of raw fruits and/or vegetables are well known but do we want tobelieve them? We still don't know that much about fruit and its contents... Fruit is not expensive at all Did you always think that fruit is an expensive product? Take a good look at how much money you spend on other food. It could be worth something to replace some of those expenses with fruit... Fibers We do know now that a diet with plenty of fibers helps against corpulence, high blood pressure, and other factors that increase the chance for a heart disease. The food that contains these healthy (natural) fibers is.... right: FRUIT! Fruit Is 100% Bad-Cholesterol Free No doubt about this reason. Too much cholesterol is not good for our bodies and fruit doesn't contain much cholesterol. Animal products like meat and dairy contain a lot of cholesterol... Fruit Makes You Feel Better Several stories have told us about people that were frequently depressed and how they got out of their depression slowly but surely after consuming substantial amounts of fresh fruit on a regular basis. Eating a lot of fruit can have a mysterious healing effect on human beings... Ethical Reasons To Eat Fruit Fruit doesn't have to be killed and slaughtered before you can eat it. The fruits are just hanging there waiting to be picked by you... Fruit Is The Most Natural Food Fruit is food that has been made by plants to be eaten by animals and humans in order to spread its seeds... The Human Diet Here at The Fruit Pages we are convinced that a good human diet should consist of freshly squeezed fruit juices, bread, vegetables and some water. Since it is hard for the average homo sapiens to conform him or herself to such a severe diet, we suggest that one starts by eating five to nine pieces of fruit a day...

Fruits....Why?

2009-01-04T12:42:00.000-08:00

Fruit is a quick and easy way of giving your body the goodness it needs to keep healthy. Fruit is also a great thing to give your kids - it makes a great healthy snack, instead of chocolate, sweets or crisps.Here are some of the more common fruits, but there are many, many more. Each fruit listed here also has its own recipe idea.VERY IMPORTANT: You should always wash fruit before eating it - either raw or cooked. To do this, simply rinse the fruit under a cold tap to remove any dirt or chemicals.

Apple

Red and so sweet taste and shape.Apples are quick, easy and convenient - a fruit that you can eat anywhere, anytime. They help stop you getting ill and can help prevent cancer.Have you ever heard that with one apple we don't need doctor in a day?

Banana

Bananas are full of goodness. They give you energy and keep your body strong, meaning they're a snack that is healthy and filling.And because they're soft, they are easy to digest - making them a perfect food for weaning and perfect for when you're in a rush.For a healthy start in the morning, try adding slices of banana to a bowl of cereal.

Orange

Oranges are one of the best sources of vitamin C - which helps you to stop getting ill. They are also very good for your eyes and bones, and contain folic acid, which is very important if you're pregnant.You can eat oranges segment by segment or cut them into quarters.

Pear

Pears are good for your heart and your digestion. They also give you energy.You can eat them just as they are - like you would eat an apple - or cut them into chunks.

Strawberries

Strawberries are one of Britain's favourite fruits. They're sweet, tasty, easy to prepare and very healthy. Strawberries are good for your heart, blood and bones.Preparing strawberries couldn't be easier - just remove the stalk and eat!Strawberries are not suitable for small children as they can cause allergic reactions.

Peach

Peaches are a great healthy snack - they're especially good for your teeth and bones.To prepare, simply cut around the stone in the middle and the peach will come away in two halves.

It's easy doesn't it?Get more info at this site and have fun...!